16 vijayanagara

8/2/2019 16 Vijayanagara

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Vijayangara

10th Feb 2012


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Founded in the middle of the 14th century in thewake of the invasion of South India by the armies ofthe Delhi sultans, Vijayanagara became the seat of a

line of powerful Hindu emperors.

During the next 200 years, they established theirauthority over a terr itory that encompassed thediverse populations of southern India, includingpresent-day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala,

and Tamil Nadu.

The rulers competed with the rajas of Orissa andthe sultans of the Deccan kingdoms that layimmediately to the north.

In 1565, the Vijayanagara army lost a major battle,and the capital was subsequently abandoned andsacked.

The court shifted to southern AndhraPradesh where the kings ruled over theirdwindling domains until the middle of the 17thcentury.


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The ruins of Vijayanagara occupy a dramatic

rocky site in central Karnataka,through which the Tungabhadra riverflowsin anortheasterly direction.Villagessitedon terraces above the floor of the

Tungabhadra valley date from prehistoricand early historic times. Burial groundsand paintings preserved under rock sheltersare also preserved from these early periods.

The oldest historic sett lement at this site isHampi, a Hindu tirtha where the rivergoddess Pampa and her consor t Virupaksha,a form of Shiva, are worshiped. TheVirupaksha cult at Hampi has been inexistence since the eighth-ninth centuries; itsurvives down to the present day as the most

important pilgrimage spot in this part ofsouthern India.

The devastation of the Deccan and SouthIndia by the armies of the Delhi sultan at theturn of the 14th century providedopportunities for local warriors to assert

their autonomy.

T HE CAPITAL


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Among these were Sangama and his fivesons, who were probably local chiefs in theservice of Kampila.

Established themselves in the Hampiarea, donating to the Virupaksha temple

there and adding temples on Hemakuta hillimmediately to the south. From here, they setout to reclaim the territories lost to thesultanate armies, thereby creating a vast kingdomthat extended all the way to Tamilnadu. In the

course of the second half of the 14th

century,under Bukka I (reigned 1355-77) and Harihara

II (reigned 1377-1404), the Hampi tirthahad been incorporated into a walledcity, which they named Vijayanagara.

The ramparts of the city exploited the

defensive advantages of the rockylandscape, while the river protected the citysnorthern flank and provided essential waterfor agriculture and domestic use.At thecore of this walled zone was the royal centre,where the Sangama kings had their palaces,private chapels for worship and platforms and

halls for their royal ceremonies.


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By the beginning of the 15th

century, under two successiveSangama kings both named

Devaraya (1406-22 and1424-46), the city wasfurther expanded with theconstruction of additionalprotective walls andgateways.

By this t ime, Vijayanagara hadbecome a true capital citywith a varied population ofpeople from all parts ofsouthern India, including

Jainsand Muslims.

Foreign visitors wereattracted to the city, and theirdescriptions of thesplendours of theVijayanagaracourt provide importantevidence of life in the city.


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Among the royal structures constructed at

this time were the domed ElephantStables built in a style influenced by thearchitectureof the Bahmanis.

These sultans governed a kingdom that layto the north of Vijayanagara, at the heart ofthe Deccan plateau.Frequent raids and wars

between the Sangamas and theBahmanis resulted from their attempts tocontrol of the richly irrigated landsthat lay in between their capitals.

Building activity at Vijayanagara was halted

temporarily toward the end of the 15th

century, as a result of two successivemilitary coupes. Stability was restored only

at the turn of the 16th century by therulersof theTuluva dynasty.


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Krishnadevaraya (reigned 1510-29) and his bother-in-law Achyutaraya (reigned 1529-42), the city wasgreatly expanded. New suburbs with great templecomplexes were laid out, including those dedicated to

Balakrishna,Tiruvengalanatha (Venkateshvara),Vitthala, Pattabhirama and Anantashayana.Meanwhile, the Virupaksha cult at Hampi was renovatedand expanded, and a new palace was established some12 kilometres away, at a site coinciding with the moderntown of Hospet.

Conflict with the Deccan sultans intensified duringTuluva times, leading eventually to the famous battle

fought near Talikota, a site some 100 km awayfrom the capital, in January 1565. After thecatastrophic defeat of their army, the Vijayanagara kingand court fled the capital, leaving it to the mercy of thesultanate soldiers. Judging from the extensive

destruction, the city was sacked and wooden structureswere burnt.

Both sultanate and Vijayanagara officers briefly attemptedto reoccupy the remains of the city after its destruction.Soon thereafter, the ruins were left to agriculturalists,treasure seekers and tigers. However, some suburbs,

suchas Anegondi, continued to be inhabited.


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Thesite ofVijayanagara is located in Hospet Taluk,Bellary Distr ict, in central Karnatakastate.

The Tungabhadra River flows in a north-easterly direction through rugged ridges

formed by ancient granite outcropspiled with boulders.

Many of the great temple complexes comprising the Sacred Centre of the city overlook thisholy stream.

Further south, where the landscape begins to open into a broad plain, are the remains of thefortified Urban Core where the citys large population was most densely concentrated.Within

the Urban Core lies the Royal Centre, comprising the ceremonial and residential seat of theVijayanagarakings. Additional populations lived in the outlyingSuburban Sett lements.

Since the construction of a dam on the River in the mid 20th century, agricultureand industry has grown in the region. Tourism has also become more important particularly sincethe site was inscribed on UNESCOs World Heritage List. Increasing economic activity andpopulation as well as greater national and international attention have accelerated conflictingefforts

to develop the site and to conserve the archaeological record.

THE SITE


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The impression of volcanic disturbance is misleading since Hampi'sgranite terrain is one of themost ancient and stable surfaces to be found anywhere in the world.

Vast layers of granite were formed under the earths surface about 3 and 3.5 billion years ago dur ing thegeological period known as the Archaean, a division of the pre-Cambrian. At that time, the granite formedpart of an ancient super cont inent. Elsewhere in the Deccan, these eruptions created volcanic cones andthick beds of lava and ash.

The unique rocky appearance of the granite landscape was not created by earthquake and upheaval, but

by countless millions of years of weathering, first underground before it wasexposed by gradual uplift, then by the erosive forces of sun, wind and occasionalrain. So even is the grain of the granite that the rock was worn away to create spherical shapes; hencethe many rounded and detached boulders, some of which are perched precariously, as if about to roll

over.

THE PHYSICAL LAN DSCAPE


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For pilgrims to Vijayanagara the most important aspect of the site is the association with various

myths and legends.

The first of these legends relates the story of Virupakshas marriage to Pampa, a beautiful localmaiden (after whom the village of Hampi takes its name).

The Ramayana epic is equally important in the mythological landscape.The Vijayanagara site isbelieved to be Kishkindha, the monkey kingdom where the episodes of one of the chapters of theRamayanatook place.

Among other features at Vijayanagara with Ramayana associations is Pampasaras where Ramasought the goddesss protection and where Shabari sheltered. M atanga hill, one of the highestpoints of the site is named after a sage who protected Sugriva against Vali and who guided Shabari.Immediately beneath the hill, on the south bank of the Tungabhadra, is a boulder carved with thefigures of Rama, Lakshmana, Sita and Hanuman. This marks the spot where Lakshmana crowned

Sugriva. The boulder is incorporated into the Kodandarama temple. The bathing spot nearby,Chakra tir tha, is the holiest at Vijayanagara. Here, Shiva gave Vishnu one of his most powerful

weapons,the Chakra. The tirtha is situated at a point where the Tungabhadra turns northwards,giving an unimpeded view of Anjanadri hill on the opposite bank, about 1 kilometre way. Anjanadrihill is named after the mother of Hanuman,who is supposed to have been born here.Another Ramayana feature of interest is Sugrivas cave, a natural cleft in the boulders a shortdistance downstream from the Kodandarama temple. Here, Sugriva is believed to have hidden the

jewels that Sita dropped from Ravanas aerial chariot. M alyavanta hill in the eastern part of the

site is where Ramaand Lakshmanawaited while Hanuman sought Sita.

TH E MYTHICAL LANDSCAPE


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Laid out along the southern bank of the Tungabhadra river, the Sacred Centre of Vijayanagara is

made up of distinct temple districts, partly defined by fort walls. Shaivite shrines are locatedprimarily to the west and Vaishnavite shrines are primarily to the east of the Kodandarama temple.Dominating the Shaivite area is temple distr ict known as Hampi, the village that today gives its name to thewhole site.

The Virupaksha temple, the seat of a god celebrated in pre-Vijayanagara times and still in worship today.Thetemple comprisesa double-walled compound, entered through towered gopuras (gateways) on the east and

north.At the core of the complex are sanctuariesfor Virupaksha and Pampa.

Early shrines are seen on the sloping ledge of Hemakuta hill, immediately to the south.Here, too, aremonolithic sculptures of Ganesha, one set within a constructed shrine. The great colonnaded street thatextends eastwards from the Virupaksha temple serves today as a temple bazaar,as it did in the past. Chariotfestivalsare still held here.

About 1 kilometre south of Hampi is the district known as Krishnapura, after the 16th centuryBalakrishna temple complex. A great colonnaded bazaar street with a ceremonial tank also precedes the

abandoned temple. Nearby to the south, are monolithic sculptures of a lingam and of Lakshmi-Narasimha,which at almost 7 meters high, isthe largest at the site.

SACRED CENTRE


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About 1 kilometre east of Hampi and a short distance from the Tungabhadra, comprises the focus of

Achyutapura, another district of the Sacred Centre. The north-facing sixteenth centurycomplex is consecrated to Tiruvengalanatha,a form ofVishnu.

Probably the most artistic temple is that dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Krishna.The site preservescolumns with remarkable figural and animal carvings. A unique Garuda shrine, fashioned as a chariot with

stone wheels, stands in front of the temple. A large walled compound, with entrance gopurason three sides, surrounds the temple and subsidiary shrines and pavilions. Colonnaded bazaar streets

runningeast and north from the temple lead to shrines dedicated to Vaishnavite saints, including the largest,dedicated to Ramanuja. The distr ict abounds in minor shrines, service structures, feeding houses,wells andalarge tank.

A valley hemmed in by granite ridges running parallel to the Tungabhadra lies immediately south of theSacred Centre. Channels and aqueducts bring water to fields of rice, sugarcane and banana trees, as in

Vijayanagara times. They include the Turutha canal that entirely traverses the site,and is still in use.Amassive bund once cut across the valley at its narrowest spot, impounding a small lake to the west intowhich projected the embankment on which the car street the Balakrishna temple was constructed. Threemassive granite staircases climb Matanga hill, which rises to the south of the bund above this irrigated valley.Superb views over the entire Vijayanagara site may be had from the roof of the small Virabhadra shrinethat crownsits summit.

SACRED CENTRE


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A short distance south of the Irr igated Valley are the walls of the Urban Core,the elite residential zoneof the Vijayanagara capital. Parallel ridges and valleys that extend northeast southwest dominate thisarea.

Massive fortifications define a large ovoid area, about 4.5 kilometres along a northeast-southwest axis. The Royal Centre occupies the southwestern half of the area while the Ragunathatemple complex on Malyavanta hill rises above the east end of the Urban Core.The remains of one ofseveral Muslim Quarters in the city extend northwestward from the hill to the flanks of the NorthRidge.

The fortifications consist of earthen walls, having massive block outerrevetments, with intermediate bastions, large gateways and small sally ports instrategic locations.

W alls extend along the summits of the North and South Ridges that form the outerboundaries of the zone, cut across valleys between these and intermediate r idges and continue across

the plane to the south and southwest. Segments of walls frequently are offset or change direction bothaccommodating themselves to changing terrain and offering angles that allow defenders to observeanyonecomingnear to the walls.

The Royal Centre occupies the western end of the Urban Core. The roughly ovoid zone,narrower to

the southwest and openingto northeast is contained within its own arc of fort walls, though theseare no longer complete. Large gateways leading into the Royal Centre stand to the east, now

forlorn in the middle of fields.

URBAN CORE & ROYAL CENT RE


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TheHazara Rama temple, which served as a royal chapel, is the hub of the enclosures of the Royal Centre.One of the principal roads of the city that runs to the northeast from the temple, through a gateway in the enclosurewall, is lined with lesser shrines. Other roads lead to the north, east and southeast. Gateways give access to adjoiningenclosures. Among the many points of interest about the temple are the depictions of royal processions and courtlyfestivals carved in relief on the outside of its enclosing walls.

Southeast of the Hazara Rama temple the basement of an extensive audience hall. There are 100 stonefootings for columns, presumably made of timber, than have long ago disappeared. The nearby multi-storeyed GreatPlatform, popularly associated with the Mahanavami festival, stands nearby. Its lowest granite stages arecovered with animated reliefs portraying the life of the Vijayanagara kings.A stepped tank immediately to thesouth, and other nearby bathing places, were probably used on particular festival occasions. A short distance to the

southeast of this enclosure stands the queens bath, probably intended for the amusement of the Vijayanagaraking and his courtiers. Built in a quasi-Islamic style characteristic of Vijayanagara cour tly architecture, it has anornate interior arcade with balconies running around a sunken square pool.

Other cour tly structures are seen in the compound northeast of the Hazara Rama temple, known misleadingly as the

zenana enclosure. It contains the basement of the largest palace structure in city. The nearby two-storeyedLotus Mahal, was probably a royal pavilion. Like the queens bath, it too is built in the fanciful Vijayanagara courtlystyle. A vaulted hall nearby may have served as a treasury or gymnasium. W atchtowersalso influenced by Islamicdesign overlook the enclosure.

Immediately outside this enclosure are the Elephant Stables. These comprise a long line of elevenchambers roofed by alternating vaults and domes in a distinct Islamic style with theparade ground and a high arcaded porch and an interior court, possibly used to view militarydisplays in front and martial entertainments such as wrestling and boxing matches inside.

Excavations in the compounds west of the Hazara Rama temple have revealed the remains of numerous palaces,

presumably for the royal household. One complex of fifteen palaces has even been labelled the Noblemens

Quarter.


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URBAN FORM

A zonal concept of the city, divided the region into SacredCentre, Urban Core and Royal Centre.

The layout of the Royal Centre suggests a division into two

complimentary areas:a Zone of Royal Performanceand a zone of Royal Residence. These zones areseparated by a north-south axis that passed through theHazara Rama temple, which functioned as a state chapel forthe kings.

This nor th-south axis extended northwards, it passes through

Matanga hill, the Kodandarama temple andAnjenadri hill, all of which are associated withthe Ramayana epic. The axis also marks the areaprimarily containing Shaivashrines (west) from that containingVaishnavashrines (east). In these ways, the mythological

landscape of the city was integrated into the architecturalconfiguration of the Royal Centre and the larger urban area.

By the 16th century, however, this model seems to have beenmodified. The king sat at the core of a constellation ofpowerful divinit ies, whose temples, complexes in the SacredCentre and Suburbs surrounded the Royal Centre.


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The dry interior districts of northern Karnataka that supported the Vijayanagara capital posed specialchallenges to agricultural production; the success of the city depended on meeting these challenges. Adiverse repertoire of agricultural strategieswas practiced by Vijayanagara food producers; in particular,a process which Kathleen Morrison has termed agricultural intensification. This was crucial both the

initial founding of the city and its dramatic expansion in the first half of the 16th century. A keyfactor in this processof intensification wasthe control of water.

One of the primary concerns of the Vijayanagara kings was to attract sufficient population to workthe land, pay taxes, and defend the scarce resources against marauders. To entice and sustain apopulation of sufficient size and ability, best use had to be made of the scant water available foragricultural and domestic use.There were also significant religious and ritual needs to be provided for:traditional Hindu culture has always been inextricably bound up with water and the necessity forritual purification.Thekey to increasingeconomic potential was seen to be the optimum utilization ofresources.

From earliest times the Vijayanagara kings were concerned to construct and operate effective and

reliable water supply systems to satisfy the metropolitan area of Vijayanagara. Seeking to promote theappearance of a strong city state with powerful leaders, the kings exploited the hydrologicalenvironment to its maximum advantage, irrigating agricultural land inside the city, directing water into

urban areas for domestic use,and buildingan impressive system of baths and channelstoservice the Royal Centre. At a larger scale several instances of interlinked reservoirsand canalswere also created.

W ATER SYSTEMS


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STONE TECHNOLOGY

While metal tools were presumably widely used at Vijayanagara, the use of stone tools in the

Vijayanagara region dates back to Palaeolithic times, but it has been surprising to find that theywere also produced and used in Vijayanagara times. Tool formsranged from simple flakes and core toolsto a variety of scrapers with modified edges, a tool probably used for quarr ying: a large basalt cobblewith an artificial grove around its meridian,which was been battered at both ends.

The builders of Vijayanagara were dependant on granite -- the raw material for most types ofmonumental construction at the site which was abundant in and around the city.

Traditionally, granite blocks were split by first cutting rows of closely spacedcubical holes into which wooden wedges were pounded. When wetted, the wedgesexpanded,thereby propagatingdeep cracks through the stone.

It seems that the temple interior was filled with soil, which also served as buttressing andscaffolding for builders. An earthen ramp leading up to the roof from facilitated the placement of

partly finished architectural elements. Interior and exterior walls were structurally separate, the gap inbetween beingfilled with crude brickwork or rubble.Heavy cornicestied the wallstogether.


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16 vijayanagara

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