apeksha j nayak(08vwcm6006)

7/30/2019 Apeksha J Nayak(08VWCM6006)

1/104

Assessing the role of humour in Indian advertisements 1

CHAPTER 1:

INDUSTRY

PROFILE

Alliance Business Academy


2/104


1) INDUSTRY PROFILE:

The Indian advertising industry is talking business today. It has evolved from being

a small-scale business to a full-fledged industry. It has emerged as one of the major

industries and tertiary sectors and has broadened its horizons be it the creative aspect,

the capital employed or the number of personnel involved. Indian advertising industry

in very little time has carved a niche for itself and placed itself on the global map.

Indian advertising industry with an estimated value of Rs.23, 200-crore has made jaws

drop and set eyeballs gazing with some astonishing pieces of work that it has given in

the recent past. The creative minds that the Indian advertising industry incorporates

have come up with some mind-boggling concepts and work that can be termed as

masterpieces in the field of advertising. The Indian advertising industry is expected to

grow 61% by 2010 (with advertising spend climbing to Rs. 36,731 crore)

Indian economy is on a boom and the market is on a continuous trail of expansion.

With the market gaining grounds Indian advertising has every reason to celebrate.

Businesses are looking up to advertising as a tool to cash in on lucrative business

opportunities. Growth in business has lead to a consecutive boom in the advertising

industry as well.

The Indian advertising today handles both national and international projects. This is

primarily because of the reason that the industry offers a host of functions to its

clients that include everything from start to finish that include client servicing, media

planning, media buying, creative conceptualization, pre and post campaign analysis,

market research, marketing, branding, andpublic relation services.

Keeping in mind the current pace at which the Indian advertising industry is moving

the industry is expected to witness a major boom in the times ahead. If the experts are

to be believed then the industry in the coming times will form a major contribution to

the GDP. With all this there is definitely no looking back for the Indian advertising

industry that is all set to win accolades from the world over.

http://www.exchange4media.com/http://www.exchange4media.com/http://www.exchange4media.com/http://www.exchange4media.com/http://www.exchange4media.com/


3/104


Key factors which have contributed to growth of the Indian advertising industry are:

Rapid economic growth of the country on the back of economic liberalization and

deregulation

Increase in consumer prosperity

Entry of global consumer companies with large advertising budgets

High degree of competitive intensity among consumer companies

Growth in media vehicles leading to increase in media penetration

PricewaterhouseCoopers in its Indian entertainment and media outlook 2009" report

has estimated that the Indian Entertainment & Media industry will return to double

digit growth in 2010. Indias E&M industry witnessed remarkable growth in recentyears having consistently outpaced growth in domestic GDP. While annual average

growth in nominal GDP was 14.48% over the period 2004-08, overall E&M growth in

2008 slowed, reflecting weaker economic conditions. This continued in 2009.

After registering a growth of around 16.6% compounded annually over the period

2004-08, growth in the E&M industry in 2009 decelerated to 8.0%. This has largely

been influenced by a marked slowdown in advertising spending, which has touched

9.2% in 2009 after having posting a CAGR of close to 17.3% during 2004-08.

Growth rates will increase in 2010 to 10.4% as economic conditions are expected to

gradually improve. For the remaining years of the forecast period, the industry will

continue to grow at increasing rates, resulting in the overall compound annual growth

rate for the period 2009-13 of 10.5%. Advertising revenues in the second half of the

year are set to grow more than 65 percent, says a study.

The industry logged just Rs.7,452 crore in January 1-June 30 2009, a whopping

Rs.1,414 crore less than what it made in the same period in 2008, according to the

review of the Pitch Madison Media advertising outlook 2009.

However, things may be looking up for the media industry. Our analysis for the July-

December period showed that while the media industry earned only Rs.7,452 crore in

the first half, the industry has net Rs.12,325 crore in the second half. And this is a

massive 65 percent jump over the first half, said Madison Media chairman Sam

Balsara.



4/104


However, this handsome growth, driven by an increase in ad rates and volumes, will

not be enough to offset the slump experienced by the industry in the first six months.

There was a negative growth of 5 percent for the full year. The industry was

projected to close calendar year 2009 with Rs.19,777 crore against Rs.20,717 crore in

2008, said Amit Agnihotri, exchange4media group co-founder and editor of Pitch

magazine.

During January-June, the print media saw advertising revenues plummet 32 percent,

while television saw a 19 percent drop.

Cinema and outdoor advertising took a greater hit at 37 percent and 30 percent

respectively. There was only a moderate decline of five percent in ad revenues ofradio stations.

However, the internet media is the only format that recorded a growth during the first

half, logging a 16 percent growth.

Surge in branding and marketing activities will push advertising expenditures in India

to 0.55 per cent of the country's gross domestic product by 2010 from the current 0.52

per cent, industry chamber Assocham said. A research conducted on the future of

advertising in India by the industry body revealed that the ad-spending in the country

was continuously increasing ever-since the economy had opened up and the sector

was growing at a rate of more than 22 per cent per annum.

The sector was expected to cross Rs 16,000 crore in the current fiscal with ample

scope for growing further, the Chamber said. Advertising expenditure in developing

nations has been growing despite the limited size of the markets in these countries and

still has potential, Assocham said. Developed nations, on the other hand, spend

anywhere between 0.8 per cent to over one per cent of their GDP on advertising.

The US spends nearly 1.3 per cent of its GDP on advertising, while ad-spend

percentage in various parts of Europe and south east Asia is constantly increase, the

Chamber said.



5/104


1.1) Outlook of major segments of the Indian E&M Industry:

Television industry is projected to continue to be the major contributor to the overall

industry revenue pie and is estimated to grow at a stable rate of 11.4% cumulatively

over the next five years, from an estimated Rs. 244.7 billion in 2008. The overall

television industry is projected to reach Rs. 420.0 billion by 2013. In the Television

pie, television distribution is projected to garner a share of 60% in 2013. On the other

hand, television advertising industry is projected to command a share of 41.0% in

2013, having increased from a present share of 39.0% in the total ad industry pie. The

relative share of the television content industry is expected to remain constant at 4%.

Film industry is projected to grow at a CAGR of 11.6% over the next five years,

reaching to Rs. 185 billion in 2013 from the present Rs. 107 billion in 2008. The

relative shares of the film industry are expected to shift marginally from the

traditional revenues to the new emerging revenues.

Print media industry is projected to grow by 5.6% over the period 2009-13, reaching

to Rs.213 billion in 2013 from the present Rs. 162 billion in 2008. The relative shares

of newspaper publishing and magazine publishing are not expected to change

significantly and are expected to remain the same at around 87% in favor of

newspaper publishing. Magazine publishing is expected to grow at a higher rate of

6.5% as compared with newspaper publishing which is expected to grow at 5.6% for

the next 5 years.

Radio advertising industry is projected to grow at a CAGR of 18% over 2009-13,

reaching Rs. 19 billion in 2013 from the present Rs. 8.3 billion in 2008; more than

double its present size. In terms of share of ad pie, it is projected that the radio

advertising industry will be able to increase its share from 3.8% to 5.2% in the next

five years.

Emerging segments, the key growth driver for the music industry over the next five

years will be digital music, and its share is expected to move from 16% in 2008 to

60% in 2013. Within digital music, mobile music will continue to increase its share

and maintain its dominance.



6/104


Given the trends of increased internet usage, internet advertising is projected to grow

by 32% over the next five years and reach an estimated Rs. 20 billion in 2013 from

the present Rs. 5 billion in 2008. The share of the online advertising too is projected

to grow from 2.3% in 2008 to 5.5% in 2013 of the overall advertising pie.

The estimated size of Out of home (OOH) advertising spend is Rs 15 billion in 2008,

which is projected to become almost twice its current size in 2013 (i.e., Rs 25 billion).

Its share in the total ad pie is expected to go down marginally to 6.8% in 2013 from a

current level of 6.9% in 2008.

Animation, gaming and VFX industry will continue to maintain its growth pace and is

projected to grow at a CAGR of 22% to Rs. 42.5 billion in 2013 from its current sizeof Rs. 15.6 billion. In the animation space, domestic demand will create the fillip in

its growth, as well as contribution from international co-productions, in the film and

television space.

1.2) Outlook of Indian Advertising spending (2009-13):

Owing to the economic slowdown, the growth in advertising spending has slowedafter a period of robust growth. In 2008, overall advertising spending recorded a

growth of 11.3%, over the previous year which is much lower than the growth rate of

20.7% in the earlier year. Overall spending expected to increase from the present size

of Rs. 216 billion in 2008, to Rs. 366 billion in 2013 (a cumulative growth of 11.1%

on an overall basis).

As per report by ZenithOptiMedia, Expect advertising expenditure in India to

increase from 0.50% of the gross domestic product (GDP) to 0.53% over the next

three years, Worldwide, the ad industry is expected to grow 6.7% to reach $61

billion and Internet advertising is expected to surpass magazine advertising; and the

upswing was triggered by quadrennial events like Olympics, US elections and Euro

2008. As far as Indian market is concerned:

Internet advertising contributes 1.8 %of the countrys total advertising spends.

Internet medium is set to witness 150 per cent growth in 2008.



7/104


For every hundred rupees spent by advertisers, Rs 91 is spent on television and the

print media while the outdoor media accounts for Rs 5. The rest is divided between

cinema, radio and the Internet. (The Indian entertainment industry too is expected to

grow by CAGR of 18% to reach Rs. 1 trillion numbers by 2011).

1.3) Indias advertising expenditure and GDP:

Table 1.1: Indias advertising expenditure and GDP

The Indian advertising industry comprises establishments that create and sell

advertisements for media such as newspapers, periodicals, radio, and television. It has

been evolving at a fast pace over the past few years owing to the proliferation of

means of communication and the emergence of new distribution channels. Currently

India has a low advertising spend as compared to other economies. Competition for

the outsourcing business and creativity leakage is a major issue confronting the

industry.

However, the television advertising is expected to register high rates of growth, with

India expected to become Asias leading cable market by 2010. Today in India, the

scope for advertising has progressed considerably although the Indian advertising

spends as a percentage of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is still as low as 0.34%

as opposed to other developed and developing countries.


YearGDP( constant price)

In 000 crores (rs.)

GDP( current price)

In 000 crores (rs.)

Current advertising

expenditurein 000 crore rs.

2004 2602.065 3149.407 14.02992005 2844.942 3586.743 16.1766

2006 3120.029 4129.173 20.7095

2007 3402.716 4723.4 23.965

2008 3993.5 5279.6 27.945

2009 3702.3 5167.9 32.8457
http://www.pluggd.in/2007/07/indian-entertainment-industry-all-sethtmlhttp://www.pluggd.in/2007/07/indian-entertainment-industry-all-sethtml


8/104


Figure 1.1: Advertising expenditure as a percentage of GDP

Advertising revenues are vital for the growth of Entertainment and Media (E&M)

industry in India. These low ad spends are an immense potential for growth. This can

be seen through the development of so many new mediums of advertising in recent

years. Current advertising revenues are about 200 billion for 2009.

Figure 1.2: Share of advertising spending by medium



9/104


1.4) PEST analysis:

1.4.1) Political factors:

Review of advertising code: In recent years the quantity of false, misleading and

offensive advertising has resulted in consumers having an increasing disbelief in

advertising, and a growing resentment of it. Misleading, false advertising also

constitutes unfair competition. It could lead to market-place disaster or even

litigation. If this kind of advertising continues, it wont be long before statutory

regulations and procedures are imposed which make even fair, truthful, decent

advertising cumbersome if not impossible. Hence, the Advertising Standards

Council of India (ASCI) adopts a Code for Self-Regulation in Advertising. It is a

commitment to honest advertising and to fair competition in the market-place. It

stands for the protection of the legitimate interests of consumers and all concerned

with advertising - advertisers, media, advertising agencies and others who help in

the creation or placement of advertisements. Adoption of these codes will lead in

fewer false, misleading claims, fewer unfair advertisements and increasing

respectability.

Ban on surrogate advertising: The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting

has taken a decision to ban surrogate advertising, which may cost the broadcasters

as much as Rs 200 crore a year. Taking into account print media ads, this could

rise to Rs 250 crore if ads from brands such as Kingfishers mineral water, Royal

Stag Mega cricket, White Mischief Holidays are no longer allowed to be aired.

Many of these brands associate themselves with sports such as golf and cricket in

India; the DLF IPL Bangalore franchise has been named after UB Groups

premium whiskey brand Royal Challenge. Kingfisher Mineral Water, McDowells

No 1 Soda, Bacardi Blast were amongst the biggest advertisers on television, their

volume of advertising comparing well with advertising by aerated drinks makers.

According to a media buyer of a leading agency, an average liquor brands spend

across platforms is as much as Rs 45 crore, and as long as a surrogate brand has a

strong business proposition it should be allowed to advertise.



10/104


CAS (Conditional Access System) implementation altering viewership

distribution: With CAS system, consumers would have the option to choose the

channels they want to pay for and view, rather than receiving the whole set of

channels made available to them by the cable operator. The work on CAS had firstcommenced when the then I and B Minister Sushma Swaraj set up a task force in

September 2001. Following its report, the Cable TV Networks (Regulation) Act

1995 was amended and a notification was issued for introducing the system within

six months and a new task force was set up to ensure this.

Direct-To-Home Growth Spurring Niche Programming: The huge array of

channels available to DTH subscribers has increased and continues to increase. If

we take a closer look at the composition of population across Asia, there are a

plethora of different languages, cultures and religions living side-by-side. These

different pockets all have different specific requirements when it comes to

television programming and channel choice. These bouquets of channels are also

extremely popular with expatriates of countries across the world. No matter where

they now reside, they may still gain access to the programmes that they wouldreceive in their country of birth.

In India, the DTH market has doubled in the past two years. Satellite offers many

benefits to a country like India. It can be deployed anywhere, no matter how

remote. It needs no prior infrastructure. It is a cheap method of delivery. It is also

very reliable.

Deregulation of FM radio increasing media penetration: There are 104 million

radio households in the country, and approximately 111 million radio sets. Radio

covers 97.3% of the country's population and 91% of the country's geographical

area. The size of the advertising pie in the radio industry currently is

approximately 4% and growing at 10-12%.



11/104


12/104


1.4.3) Social Factors:

Teens emerge as influential consumers: Beyond the growth in the Teen

population, marketers cannot afford to ignore Teens for numerous other reasons.

This growing powerbase of spenders and influencers are important because they:

1. Have significant discretionary income.

2. Spend family money as well as influence their parents spending on both large

and small household purchases.

3. Establish and affect fashion, lifestyle, and overall trends.

4. Provide a window into our society a view of how it is now, and what it is

likely to become.

Non-Metro India influencing advertising strategies: The Indian economy has

been saved from the slowdown due to rural growth is true to a certain extent.

India's growth has been fuelled more by domestic demand than exports. Also

Indian spending and saving habits differ from other parts of the world. Indians by

their very nature always save for their future and this holds them in good stead

during times of crisis. The Indian buyer is more finance conscious than his global

peer. The Indian banking system is actually more resilient and the level of

delinquencies is far lower than in other parts of the world.

1.4.4) Technological factors:

Digital and graphic innovation in outdoor advertising: Amongst the varioustools of advertising, outdoor advertising is one of the effective techniques used by

advertisers to keep businesses afloat and also to increase product awareness and

sales. Wide ranges of outdoor advertiser have so far created a huge impact with

their advertisements. Various forms or methods of outdoor advertising are

available such as banner ads, billboard ads, kiosk ads, lamp post ads etc.



13/104


Animation industry driving creativity: Animation is often used in

advertisements. The pictures can vary from hand-drawn traditional animation to

computer animation. By using animated characters, an advertisement may have a

certain appeal that is difficult to achieve with actors or mere product displays. Forthis reason, an animated advertisement (or a series of such advertisements) can be

very long-running, several decades in many instances. The animation is often

combined with real actors.

Animated characters are making a spirited return to the marketing world, but in a

break from the earlier practice of saddling them with the entire brand, they are

being used in short periods to promote a product or service.

Companies like Maruti, came with its cartoon mascot, Mr WiseR, Mentos the

man-donkey combination, Docomos dancing logo characters, Vodafones

zoozoos, Amul came with Amul girl, Air India came with Maharaja, ICICI

Prudential came with Chintamani and Sunfeast came with Sunny and Pillsbury

doughboy. Castrols animated Rajinikanth series and Centre Freshs animated

zubaan pe lagaam that featured caricatures of Rakhi Sawant, Rahul Mahajan and

Bappi Lahiri, and many more cartoon characters have made a remarkable success

to the brand it was launched for.

INSAT 4 series launch: INSAT-4 series is deigned to meet the requirements for

direct-to-home television and communication services, video picture transmission,

and digital satellite news gathering services, as well as to serve the National

Informatics Center with VSAT connectivity.

Internet penetration driving online advertising: Online advertising in India is

fast gaining acceptance and offers an ever increasing user base. Increasing

awareness among advertisers and increase in Internet penetration are driving

growth of the online medium and its horizontals. The market is expected to

witness only a 27% p.a. growth from 2008-2013.

Growing Internet user base, increasing time spent on the Internet, broadband

penetration into households and fragmented media consumption habits of

consumers are driving advertisers towards the online medium



14/104


1.5) Top Advertising Companies Of India:

Advertising is a big business in this era in India. Indian Advertising industry has

witnessed a prominent globalization. With the inception of various divisions, the

advertising industry has undergone a sea change. Indian consumer's deepening pocket

and blooming markets for ad-spends have touched new heights in India. The Indian

Advertising Companies are creating stories and brand experiences in a way that

engages and involves. The Best Indian sites offer the names of the top Advertising

Organizations in India. Some of the top Indian websites are:

Ogilvy and Mather:

This is one of the leading advertising companies in India. This organization believes

that devotion to the brand defines the profile of their company. This company has

offices across the globe. The objective of the company is to build brands. I t is a

subsidiary of WPP Group plc. This company is headquartered at New York.

J Walter Thompson India:

One of the most popular companies in the advertising industry is J Walter Thompson

India. Their objective is to make advertising a part of the life of the consumers. This is

also world's best advertising brand with about 200 offices in 90 countries. This

company is the first one to introduce pioneer careers in ad for women, sex-appeal ads

and also produced the first ever sponsored -TV program.

Mudra Communication Pvt. Ltd:

This is one of the renowned advertising companies of India. This advertising

organization was founded in the year 1980 at Mumbai. Recently the Ad Company

declared the addition of public relations, rural marketing, events etc. The head office

of the company is in Bombay Area.

FCB-Ulka Advertising Ltd:

One of the best companies in India in the advertising arena is FCB-Ulka Advertising

Ltd. In US, this advertising company ranks third and tenth in the world having about



15/104


188 offices in 102 countries. Their aim is to reflect the needs of the brand and not the

personality of the brand. It has about 500 professionals and no prima donnas.

Rediffusion-DY&R:

This Advertising Company of India has made a benchmark in the field of creativity.

India's 5th largest advertising company is Rediffusion. This advertising agency offers

a wide array of integrated pr services for external and internal communications. The

primary strength of the company lies in the media relations.

McCann-Erickson India Ltd:

The prominent name among the best advertising companies of India is McCann-

Erickson India Ltd. They define work in relation to the impact that advertising has on

the lives of masses. The testimony of the company in which it firmly believes is the

campaign of Coca -cola-'Thanda Matlab Coca Cola'.

RK Swamy/BBDO Advertising Ltd:

It maintained the record of remaining consistently among the top ten advertising

agencies in India. Established in 1973, this advertising reached great heights. This is

also India's No.1 research company in the market sector and is fully run by Indians.

Brand Equity is an integral part of the company.

Grey Worldwide (I) Pvt. Ltd:

A significant name in India in the world of advertising agencies is Grey Worldwide

(I) Pvt Ltd.The Company is primarily based in Mumbai and has offices in Kolkata,

Ahmedabad, Bangalore and New Delhi. It is a subsidiary of Grey Worldwide. The

company specializes in advertising and marketing services.

Leo Burnett India Pvt. Ltd:

It has a significant presence in about 96 offices in 10 countries. This advertising

agency was awarded the 'Worldwide Agency of the Year' in 2004.They are proficient

in explaining how a single image is worth thousand words and can break the barriersof language but not at the cost of the ad's emotional power.



16/104


Contract Advertising India Ltd:

This advertising company of India is one of the leading advertising agencies in India.

It is one-to-one customer lifecycle management advertising agency. It was founded in

1992 and is situated in Mumbai. It offers a wide range of services like online

marketing and strategy and many others.

1.6) Indian Advertising Industry using more Humour in TV

commercials:

Today advertisers are increasingly replacing sex appeal with humour as the way to

reach the consumer's purse. A look at the Indian advertising scenario now shows that

an overwhelming number of TV commercials rely on being funny, irrespective of

whether the product is low involvement, such as soft drinks, beer or candies.

"Humour can work anywhere. There are no rules," said Arvind Bugga, chief strategist

with Delhi-based advertising agency K Factor. Bugga said "We had created an ad for

Lakshmi Cement. To emphasise the strength of the cement the visual clip showed a

cyclist with bags of Lakshmi Cement colliding with a truck. The truck disintegrates

but the cyclist with his cement remains intact. Cement is a high involvement product

and yet the humour worked. Our client ran the ad for more than two years".

The rules of the game have changed, especially for TV commercials. While print

media ads are still rather staid, most audio-visual advertising relies heavily on humour

to attract attention.

"Humour is the new sex in advertising," says Mokokoma Mokhonoana, founder and

creative director of South African ad agency Two Way and author of Design Literacy

Journal.

Marketing pundits have for long believed that humour is best used for products that

are low involvement, low cost and purchased regularly. "In fact, this has been

established empirically by something known as the Product Colour Matrix," AnindyaChatterjee, professor of marketing, Slippery Rock University, Pennsylvania.



17/104


But Indian advertisers are certainly challenging the wisdom that humour works only

for certain categories. Humour is being used even for high involvement products like

insurance or pension funds such as the Max New York Life ads where a child is asked

to pronounce "Czechoslovakia" or where a retired man is planning to go to a distant

city to attend the marriage of the daughter of someone whom he hardly knows.

The comic element can be found in many other high involvement products such as

mobile phone services (Vodafone), motor cars (Hyundai Santro), television sets (Sony

Bravia), and motor bikes (Hero Honda).

"Today with so many people suffering from depression and suppressed anxiety,

humour brings relief and catches attention," said Bashab Sarkar, MD and CEO ofDelhi-based advertising agency Media Pros. He said "There are two major routes to

catching attention - testimonials and humour. But the main thing is big ideas are

missing and there are too many products. So, often there is no choice but to use

humour".

Of course, there are downsides. "There is certainly a big risk when using the comic

element. It has to be executed perfectly just as a joke has to be told perfectly -

otherwise it falls flat and no one laughs," Bugga said.

"Relevance is another key element," said Sarkar. "The Vodafone campaign with little

white characters is funny but it is done in such a way that all the attributes that

Vodafone wants to highlight are brought to the viewer's attention," he said.

Some marketing gurus are, however, downright sceptical of using humour in

advertising. "Even if people find your humour amusing, does it sell? My belief is that

generally it does not. What sells are clear benefits," says Michael Hepworth, a top

marketing consultant in the US and whose free "Marketing Tips" magazine is read by

thousands of business owners around the world in more than 47 countries.

I would certainly advise against indiscriminate use of humour," said Chatterjee.

Even as the marketing gurus slug it out over the issue of using humour in advertising,

the creative honchos in ad agencies are merrily going ahead with laugh riots.



18/104


CHAPTER 2:

RESEARCHDESIGN



19/104


2) RESEARCH DESIGN:

2.1) Background to the research:

Around the turn of the last century, most of the serious-minded architects of modern

advertising like John E. Powers, Albert Lasker, John E. Kennedy, Claude Hopkins,

and Ernest E. Calkinsheld the use of humour in low favour (Beard, 2005).

Outrageous limericks, claims, slogans, racial and ethnic caricatures, and a flippant

style of copy are the examples of the humour that were used in the newspaper

advertising in the mid to late 1800s (Beard, 2005). But such ads were not very

common and they mainly focused on highlighting the products features in a straight-

forward manner. However, the things have changed and the need for creativity in

ads has arisen.

Today, the consumers are exposed to thousands of commercial advertisements and

messages in various forms every week (Speck and Elliott 1997; Blackwell et al.,

2005), making it difficult for each advertiser to stand out as unique and persuade

consumers to consider their product or service. To break through the clutter of

competing ads and to gain attention of the viewer, advertisers spend a lot of time and

money on making the ads noticeable and effective. One way of doing this is to

outspend the competition by running more and larger campaigns than other brands

(Pieters et al., 2002). This may explain the large market share and success of leading

firms. But this may not be feasible for all the brands, as only a few firms have the

ability to outspend competition to this extent. One more way of breaking through the

clutter is by promoting the brands by using creative ads. Ad agency professionals



20/104


have long promoted creativity as one of the most important elements in advertising

(Helgesen 1994; Kover et al., 2007) and the advertising awards too, focus on the

creativity of the ad. Creative ads not only push the message into viewers minds, but

are also cost-effective (Kover et al., 1995; El-Murad and West, 2003; Till and Black,

2005). Within the field of advertising, most definitions of creativity involve an aspect

of newness, unexpectedness, or originality. Leo Burnett defined advertising creativity

as the art of establishing new and meaningful relationships between previously

unrelated things in a manner that is relevant, believable, and in good taste, but which

somehow presents the product in a fresh new light (El-Murad and West 2004). Many

dimensions have been associated with advertising creativity. The most notable ones

are - humour(Weinberger and Spotts 1989; Lee and Mason 1999),positiveness (Ang

and Low 2001), and well-craftiness (White and Smith 2001). Also, due to the fact that

many markets are rather saturated today, many commercials aim at the recipients

emotional attention rather than presenting their products features and advantages.

Amongst the various means used to appeal emotionally to the audience, humour

provides the advertiser with the tool to evoke positive feelings in the audience (Beard,

2005).

Humour has always been a pervasive part of life. Over the years psychologists,

scientists and sociologists have given significance to the benefits of humour. By

giving a voice to difficult thoughts or emotions, humour helps people to cope with

challenging situations by releasing tension (Francis, 1994; Freud, 1928). Humour also

plays an important role in social communication (Lynch, 2002), and is often used to

gain social power by controlling the situation (Barsoux, 1993). It eases tension in

awkward social settings and facilitates social bonding (Francis, 1994). One more



21/104


important and the most relevant aspect of humour in the context of this study is the

use of humour in advertising strategies. The prevalent use and eminent popularity of

advertising humour amongst advertisers and audiences confirms its importance in the

contemporary world (Beard, 2005). Advertisers frequently use humour to

communicate with their target audiences. As Roman and Maas (1976) note,

Everyone likes funny commercials. Creative people like creating them. Advertisers

are pleased to be running them. The consumer enjoys them.

Semantically, Attardo (1994) has built up the field of humour as in figure 2.1:

Figure 2.1 - Different kinds of humour

(Source: Attardo, 1994)

Looking at these variety of concepts, it comes as no surprise that there is little

consensus about the effects of humorous ads. This is based on individual

predispositions one person might find a commercial extremely amusing while

another rejects it (Beard, 2008).



22/104


Estimates of the use of humorous advertising suggest that almost 24.4% of prime time

television advertising in the U.S. is intended to be humorous (Weinberger and Spotts,

1989). Earlier researches conducted in other mediums of advertising also suggest

similar results. Accordingly, there is a high level of usage of humour in television ads

(Kelly and Solomon, 1975; Markiewicz, 1972; Speck, 1987) and in radio (Weinberger

and Campbell, 1991). Also, around 10 to 30% of the annual advertising expenditure in

the United States is used for ads with humour intent (Krishnan and Chakravarti,

2003), reflecting marketers belief in humour as an effective advertising tool. The

usage of humour also varies from one region to another depending on their culture

(Mooij, 1994). Similarly, many studies have been carried out to understand the

different humour types and mechanisms used by the advertisers to make the ad

effective. The work in the field of humour in advertising is not yet comprehensive and

many practitioners and researchers are still exploring the mysteries regarding the

effectiveness of humour in ads. The present research too, tries to throw light upon the

concept of humour in advertising by analysing the existing literatures, estimating the

gaps in the same and finally evaluating the use and effect of humour in Indian

advertisements.

2.2) Review of few previous studies:

The present research initially addresses the various studies which propose the use of

different media types, followed by the general views on the effectiveness of humour

in advertising by various practitioners. Furthermore, various theories and models (e.g.

Weinberger and Gulas (1992), Speck (1991), Spotts et al., (1997) and so on) have also



23/104


been discussed in a comprehensive manner. The gaps in the existing literature have

been analysed and appropriate research questions are formed on the same basis.

2.3) Research problem:

Most of the theories and constructs in advertising literature are based on the empirical

findings of a few researchers and practitioners. These findings again are based on a

few experiments done in labs or classrooms with a small sample size, or quantitative

surveys (e.g. Madden and Weinberer, 1982; Duncan and Nelson, 1985 Weinberger

and Gulas, 1992; Cline and Kellaris, 1998; Spotts et al., 1997; Speck and Surgi, 1987;

Beard, 2008 and so on). A proper literature review would reveal that although humour

research over the past few years has increased, only a few studies have adopted a

systematic conceptual framework (Weinberger and Gulas 1992). Speck (1991) and

Spotts et al., (1997), based on their studies, conceptualized a framework of advertising

humour. Although, most researchers acknowledge their works and some use their

frameworks for further study, very rarely has the framework been applied to the study

of different humorous advertisements. This may be attributed to the major

concentration of humour research on quantitative analysis (by using surveys and

experiments) to develop further ideas, and neglecting the qualitative real-life

campaign analysis using case studies and history. One more research problem is the

lack of scholarly works regarding the use of humour in Indian advertisements, despite

the countrys extensive use of humour in its advertising campaigns. Almost 40% of all

Indian ads and 84% of all low-involvement, low-risk products in India use humour in

advertising (Agency FAQS, 2008). As such, it is quite imperative to do a detailed

analysis of the already existing low-risk, low-involvement products in India (by using



24/104


examples, case studies or history) to gain a deeper insight of the Indian advertising

scene. This may also encourage further research in this field of study.

2.4) Introduction to the study:

Based on the issue being addressed and the type of research questions, a suitable

research approach and methodology are chosen. The present study employs case

study based qualitative research. Some researchers believe that the case studies

should be used only in an exploratory study, and experiments should be used for

explanatory or causal studies (Shavelson, 2002). But, according to Yin (2003), case

studies can be used not only as an exploratory strategy, but can also be used

effectively in causal and descriptive studies.

2.5) Need for the study:

The main purpose of this research is to analyze the Indian advertisements that use

humour as an important tool in marketing a product. The secondary purpose includes

an attempt at using case-study methodology as research tool, along with Specks

(1991) and Spotts (1997) frameworks to understand the humour types, humour

mechanisms and the reasons for their success (or failures).

2.6) Objectives of the Study:

1. To assess the role of humour in advertisements

2. To study a gap in the literature on advertising humour by exploring advertisers

uses of humour and explanations for its broad appeal.

3. To provide rich data and knowledge about the use of humour in advertising.



25/104


2.7) Scope of the study:

The present research primarily concentrates on the use of humour in television

advertising in India only.

2.8) Research Methodology:

1) Type of study:

In this study both - exploratory and descriptive approaches are used, since the

primary concern is not only to gain familiarity with the Indian advertising market, but

also to explore the types of humorous ads in India (Kothari, 2005). In addition to

offering a better insight on humorous ads in India, the exploratory research may also

provide direction for a more formal research effort (descriptive and causal researches)

in this field later.

Yin (1994) defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that

investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the

boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which

multiple sources of evidences are used. The case study method is used in analysing

complex phenomena. Although many researchers consider case study as an authentic

and effective research strategy (Easton, 1994a; Parkhe, 1993; Yin, 1993, 1994, 2003),

no journal of research on case studies or case study methods exists and the most

common research methods textbooks hardly mention case studies (Yin, 1993).

However, this research strategy allows the researcher to retain the holistic and

meaningful characteristics of real-life events like individual life cycles, organization



26/104


and managerial process and the consumer behaviour (Yin, 2003) and is therefore apt

in the present context of study. The succeeding sections justify the paradigm,

methodology and sample size used in the research.

2) Realism as the scientific paradigm:

According to researchers, there are two major approaches to theory development,

deductive theory testing and inductive theory building (Bonoma, 1985; Parkhe, 1993).

The deductive approach represents the positivist paradigm and the inductive approach

represents the phenomological paradigm. Furthermore, the phenomological paradigm

can be divided into three: critical theory, constructivism and realism (Guba and

Lincoln, 1994).

Table 2.1 - A framework for categorizing the scientific paradigms

(Source: Guba and Lincoln, 1994)

The present case study research involves the collection of perceptions of external

phenomena which involves psychology and feel of the consumers resulting from the

humorous ad. These perceptions are considered to be unobservable (Hunt, 1991, p.

282). As has been noted in the marketing literature (Hunt, 1991), positivism approach

considers only observable phenomena and is not appropriate for the unobservable

perceptions. Also, in this research, the research problems addressed are more



27/104


descriptive than prescriptive in nature, as there are no positivist experiments or cause-

and-effect paths are required to solve the problem. Here, different case studies are

analyzed and theory building is being attempted, making it an inductive study and

unsuitable for a positivist approach (Perry, 1998). On the other hand, constructivism

and critical theory methods do not support commensurability (reliability and validity)

issues required for the evaluation of the present research topic and methodology

(Hunt, 1991).

Realism paradigm is different from the above three approaches since it considers the

unobservable perceptions, does not suffer from the limitations of relativism that

constructivism and critical theory possess and is commensurable with evaluation of

the research topic and method. Also, according to marketing literatures, realism is the

preferred scientific paradigm for the case study research (Hunt, 1991, Perry

1998).Therefore, realism rather than positivism, constructivism or critical theory is

used as an epistemological guide for this case study research.

Realisms description in Table 2.1 as being inductive might suggest that deduction

has little place in case study research, with theories being built without any reference

to theory. But this case study employs a mixture of induction and deduction to make

the research more exploratory and interesting. Fact and theory (induction and

deduction) are each necessary for the other to be of value (Emory and Cooper, 1991).

This point of view is also held by some marketing literatures (Glasser and Strauss,

1987; Perry, 1998; Eisenhardt, 1991). Also, pure induction might prevent the

researcher from benefiting from existing theory, just as pure deduction might prevent

the development of new and useful theory (Parkhe, 1993).



28/104


3) Case-study as the methodology:

The purpose of this section is to justify the use of case study methodology in this

study. Case studies deal with an in-depth understanding about how different cases

provide insight into an issue or a unique case (Creswell et al., 2007). According to

Yin (1994), the usage of different research strategies depend on numerous factors as

shown in the table 2.2.

The three basic conditions which act as a deciding factor in deciding the type of

methodology to be used for the research are:

1) The type of research question posed

2) The extent of control an investigator has over actual behavioural events

3) The degree of focus on contemporary as opposed to historical events

Strategy

Form of Research

Question

Requires Control of

Behavioural Events?

Focuses on

Contemporary Events?

Experiment How, why? Yes Yes

Survey Who, where, what, how

many, how much?

No Yes

Archival

Analysis

Who, where, what, how

many, how much?

No Yes/No

History How, why? No No

Case Study How, why? No Yes

Table 2.2 - Relevant situations for different research strategies

(Source: Yin, 2003)

To begin with, a clear understanding of the research questions is necessary (Yin,

1994). The objective of the research questions of the present study is to find out how

humour is successfully used across various product categories in India and why are

these ads successful. A basic categorization scheme for the types of questions is



29/104


assessing the type questions: what, who, where, why and how (Yin, 1994).

The first type of question what can be analyzed by using any of the five research

methods shown in the table 2.2. Similarly, who what and where (and their

derivatives) generally attract the analysis of archival records. If the study needed to

analyze which (i.e. who) age-group does the advertising target the most, and how

much effect does it have on the target audience, then it would be appropriate to

choose a survey method initially, followed by an archival analysis. In contrast, how

and why type of questions lead to the use of case studies, histories and experiments

as research methodologies (Yin, 1994). The questions do not demand the knowledge

of frequencies or incidences of the humorous ads over a period of time, and hence

conducting a survey or examining archival records would be baseless.

Case study analysis overlaps with the history approach, when the latter deals with

contemporary events (Yin, 1994). The case studies rely on many of the same

techniques as history, but besides that it also includes the direct observation of events

and/or interview of the persons involved in the events. Moreover, it is possible to club

both the research strategies (case study and history) since those are not mutually

exclusive (Yin, 1994). In the present context, clubbing of the two methodologies is

apt for conducting research. But for simplification purpose and also since historical

analysis is a part of case study method, the present methodology may be referred to as

case-study approach. In the case studies mentioned in this research, contemporary

advertisements and direct observation of these ads form a part of the analysis.

Furthermore, as one of the research question is based on how, it is not possible to

have control over the actual behavioural events, and hence case studies or a survey



30/104


method can be used (Yin, 2003). Also, according to Yin (2003), what questions too

can be handled with the help of case studies. Since all the three deciding conditions in

table 3.2 are satisfied, it can be assumed that the case-study approach is viable in the

present study. Also, to increase the validity and robustness of the research analysis,

multiple cases are considered in the study (Yin, 1994).

Besides, case study approach also encompasses many advantages. The detailed

qualitative accounts produced in case studies not only help to explore or describe the

data in real-life environment, but also help to explain the complexities of real-life

situations which may not be captured through experimental or survey research

(Zaidah, 2003). Case studies also allow for both quantitative and qualitative analyses

of the data (Yin, 1994).

2) Selection of cases:

Type of cases:

According to Patton (1990), for qualitative research like the case study methodology,

the selection of cases should be purposeful, rich in information, involve replication

logic and depend on the conceptual framework developed from prior theory. Also,

Yin (1994) studied that multiple cases should be regarded as multiple experiments

and not as multiple respondents in a survey. And hence replication logic rather than

sampling logic should be used for multiple case studies. The replication logic should

either predict similar results for predictable reasons (literal replication) or produce

contrary results for predictable reasons (theoretical replication) (Yin, 1994).



31/104


In the present research, the cases chosen are very informative and relevant to the

research questions. Also, literal replication logic is used in the case studies to increase

the validity, and the entire data-analysis is supported by earlier theories, humour-

typologies and models. Although the three main case studies chosen belong to the

low-involvement, low-risk category, care has been taken to choose products which are

inherently dissimilar in their feel or functions to avoid recurring data and bias. Also,

supporting case studies and examples in the research make the analysis easier and

more information-rich.

Number of cases:

According to Eisenhardt (1989) and Lincoln and Guba (1985), the cases should be

added until theoretical saturation or the point of redundancy is reached

respectively. But this is practically not feasible due to the time constraints. This point

of view is also upheld by a few researchers. According to Romano (1989) and Patton

(1990), the choice of the number of case studies to be used is left to the researcher.

Moreover, excessive use of case studies (more than 15) may make the study

unwieldy and unclear (Miles and Huberman, 1994). In general the widest accepted

range seems to fall between two to four as the minimum and ten to fifteen as the

maximum (Perry, 1998).

In the present research, due to the time constraints, only three main cases were chosen

to answer the two research questions. The limited number of case studies demanded



32/104


that each case-study be different from each other and still ensure literal replication. To

satisfy the demands supporting cases and examples are added.

Validity and reliability:

Based on the research questions, a careful selection of cases and evidences were done

to satisfy the purpose of study. While choosing the case-studies, the quality of the

qualitative research has to be given a lot of importance (Riege, 2003). The two

important aspects of the case-study research method that are to be addressed are

validity and reliability of the study (Perry, 1998; Ruyter, 1998).

To ensure construct validity, many advertising websites and interview experts of the

heads of the advertising and client organization were taken into consideration to

minimize any kind of bias (Riege, 2003). Also, most of the draft case-studies were

being examined by senior members of the advertising agencies involved in the

making of the ad. This added to the accuracy and validity of the case-study

construction (Yin, 1994). To ensure internal validity, the results were cross-checked

in the data analysis phase leading to internal coherence of findings (Yin, 1994).

Internal and external validity were increased by doing cross-case analysis of different

products, which in turn used multiple cases (Eisenhardt, 1989), i.e. although the case

studies dealt with low-risk, low-involvement products, the industries (for example, a

confectionery and an adhesive) and target audiences (in these cases different age

groups and places) chosen were different from each other, enabling cross-evaluation

and literal replication of the cases. This helped in testing whether the findings are

generalizable beyond the immediate case(s). The use of the concepts and theories



33/104


from literature review during each research phase, especially in the data-analysis also

increases validity and reliability of the study (Yin, 1994; Riege, 2003). Moreover, the

congruence between most of the research issues arising out of the study and pre-

existing literatures explained earlier highlights the authenticity of the study.

3) Data analysis technique:

Based on the case studies explained, analysis of data is carried out. For this purpose,

each research question is handled at a time, and to do so, specific theories explained

in the literature review are used. The answer to the first research question is given by

the integration of the case studies and examples mentioned. A table is drawn to

analyze the humour types and mechanisms in the cases explained. The second

research question is approached differently, since it draws upon existing theories and

models.

2.9) Limitations of case study research:

Case study methodology has received criticisms over the years. One of the criticisms

is that they may lack vigour and may be based on equivocal evidence or biased views

to influence the direction of the findings and conclusions (Yin, 2003). To tackle this

issue, different product and sub-product categories are used, so that there is minimal

bias. Secondly, it is not feasible to generalize using a small number of subjects, some

conducted with only one subject (Tellis, 1997). The main purpose of this research is

not to generalize a particular idea, but to explore the Indian advertising scene, and

hence using case study approach is advantageous. Lastly, the case studies are often



34/104


labelled as being too long, difficult to conduct and producing a massive amount of

documentation (Yin, 1984). At the same time using lesser number of case studies

may provide with less reliable and inaccurate results. Hence, in this research, 3 main

cases along with a few supporting examples are chosen from a small focused product

to strike a balance between reliability and feasibility of the study.

2.9.1) Limitations of the present study:

When case studies are successful in revealing some of the complexities of social or

educational situations, there is often a problem of representation. Also, the sample of

advertising case studies considered may not be broadly representative of the type of

advertisements made in India. This situation can make the findings of such research

very difficult to summarize.

The time constraints and the need to be specific and concise may have resulted in

choosing only a few case studies and hence the results obtained cannot be considered

as comprehensive.



35/104


CHAPTER 3:

THEORETICAL

BACKGROUND

3) THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:



36/104


The concept of humour in advertising has been studied by various authors,

practitioners and researchers over the years (Sternthal and Craig, 1973, Madden and

Weinberger, 1984; Speck, 1991; Weinberger and Gulas, 1995; Spotts et al., 1997;

Beard, 2003, 2007, 2008 and so on). The comprehensive literature review is very

necessary to support the present study for three main reasons. Firstly, the present

research topic demands that the researcher has an in-depth knowledge of theories and

constructs to have a proper understanding of the topic. Secondly, an extensive review

of existing literatures helps in finding the gaps in the literature, so that the problem

areas could be addressed effectively using apt research questions. Lastly, in the later

part of this research, data analysis uses the concepts and ideas of various practitioners

and theories to examine the case-studies. The review starts with the different views

regarding the presence of humour in different media types and the effectiveness of

humour in ads. This then followed by studying various frameworks and hypotheses of

researches like Weinberger et al. (1995), Speck (1991), Spotts et al. (1997) and so on.

Finally, the gaps in the existing literatures are proposed and on the same basis

research questions are developed.

Presence of humour in different media types:

The use of humour is prevalent in all kinds of media. Surveys show senior advertising

practitioners believe radio and television are the media best suited to humour and

direct mail and newspapers least suited (Beard, 2006; Madden and Weinberger,

1984). The presence of humour in US television advertising is estimated from 24%

(Weinberger et al., 1995) to 28% (Toncar, 2001) to 46.2% (Catanescu and Tom,



37/104


2001) to 51% (Speck, 1991). Weinberger and Gulas (1995) provide the only available

estimate of humour in radio advertising, at 35%. The only existing study of the use of

humour in outdoor advertising was done by Bhargava et al. (1994). Around 282

Canadian outdoor advertising campaigns running between 1978 and 1991 were

analysed and it was found that 30% of the campaigns were intended to be humorous.

Use of humour in the other print media is not as prevalent. McCullough and Taylor

(1993) studied American, British, and German trade magazine advertisements and

found that 23% contained humour, with no significant differences by country.

Catanescu and Tom (2001) found that 5% of US magazine advertisements included

humour, compared to the 9.9% found by Weinberger et al. (1995). Humour in

newspapers and digital advertising has not been investigated much yet.

Difference in views regarding humour in advertisements:

Early advertisers used humour infrequently because they thought it could offend the

audience by violating the standards of good taste and their expectations of sincerity

(Beard, 2005). Even as modern advertising evolved and advertisers became more

confident about using humour, their concern about humour generating negative

responses continued. They cited several reasons for this concern: humour could be too

aggressive, it could be matched with inappropriate products and services, it could rely

on inappropriate themes, or it could irritate simply by being irrelevant (Beard, 2008).

But humour is very much prevalent in todays world, and has drawn the attention of

many researchers and advertisers.



38/104


Over the years, a lot of researchers have opined about the effectiveness of humour in

ads. A review of existing literatures highlights the contingency regarding the role of

humour in advertisements. While the use of humour is high, the efficacy of humour as

a communications device remains uncertain and controversial (Weinberger and Gulas,

1992). Empirical findings regarding humour effects are largely inconclusive (Lee and

Lim, 2009). This lack of knowledge has led advertising copywriters and researchers

alike to both praise and decry the effectiveness of humour in ads. In their

comprehensive literature review, Weinberger and Gulas (1992) have pointed out the

disparity regarding the role and impact of humour on audience mentioned in various

journals and books. On one hand, humour has been credited with increasing attention

to an advertisement (Madden and Weinberger, 1982, 1984), increasing ad

comprehension (Stewart and Furse, 1986), contributing to the positive attitude toward

the ad (Belch and Belch, 1984; Duncan and Nelson, 1985; Gelb and Pickett, 1983)

and the advertised product (Gelb and Pickett, 1983; Scott, Klein, and Bryant 1990).

On the other hand, some believe that the use of humour may not be suitable for

certain products or services and may result in fasteradvertising wear out(Weinberger

and Gulas, 1992). Duncan (1979) studied that humour may offend some members of

the audience and may result in the vampire-effect, where the humour draws attention

away from the advertised product (Duncan, 1979; Sternthal and Craig, 1973; Gelb and

Zinkhan 1986). Due to the differences in desired goal, type of humour and medium

used, placement and audience, it is hard to generalize the effects of humour (Stewfirt-

Hunter 1985). Similarly, the variations in the parameters (type of humour used,

sample size, culture, medium, repetition, argument strength and so on) used by the

researchers in several dozen studies over the past forty years make it very difficult to

resolve the fundamental question about humours effectiveness. Therefore, in the



39/104


recent years much of humour research has focused on identifying the boundary

(product, audience, message, medium, culture and so on) factors governing ad-

humour effectiveness (e.g., Alden and Hoyer, 1993; Chattopadhyay and Basu, 1990;

Cline, Altsech and Kellaris, 2003). Even more recently, researchers have started

building theory surrounding how humour is processed and identifying when humour

actually occurs (e.g., Elpers, Mukherjee, and Hoyer 2004).

3.1) Effectiveness of humour in advertising:

According to researchers, advertisers have long believed that advertising must arouse

some emotion to be effective (Beard, 2005). Furthermore, studies involving magazine

ads (Madden & Weinberger, 1982), radio ads (Weinberger & Campbell, 1991) and

television ads (Stewart & Furse, 1986) in the past have provided converging evidence

that humorous ads are more attention-grabbing than non-humorous ads. Joe

Sedelmaier, a guru of humorous ads, has long touted the claim that the presence of

humour effectively increases attention to ads (Dee 1993). According to Sutherland

and Sylvester (2000), there are three main mechanisms by which humorous ads are

supposed to work more effectively than straight ads:

1. Humorous ads are attention grabbers, and hence easily noticed.

2. There is minimal critical evaluation of humorous ads because viewers process them

as entertainment rather than engage in counter-argument.

3. They are liked more and there is evidence that ads that are liked have a higher

probability of being effective.



40/104


Mehta and Purvis (2006) cited two main reasons for using emotional responses like

humour in advertising. Firstly, the key to branding is the triggering of an emotional

response, which is often the major benefit of using a particular product. Secondly, the

process that consumers go through in deciding what brands to buy has a heavy

emotion-based dimension to it. While there is agreement about the need for an

emotional response to advertising in order for it to be effective, there is considerable

argument about how exactly emotion works to influence the overall impact of

advertising. The same is the case with the measurement or evaluation of humour

response in advertising.

Over the years, numerous empirical studies and researches have attempted to explain

the relationship between humour and advertising effectiveness (e.g., Chattopadhyay &

Basu, 1990; Smith, 1993; Weinberger et al., 1995). For instance, Madden and

Weinberger (1984) conducted a survey which revealed that 94% believed humour was

effective in gaining attention, and 38% felt humour increased comprehension

(Madden & Weinberger, 1984). On the same lines, in a Video Storyboards survey of

randomly chosen consumers, 62% said that humorous ads were the most influential

and an American Advertising fax poll showed that 92% of respondents claimed that

humour was either highly or moderately effective as a selling tool (Custer, 1995).

The widespread use of humour, coupled with the unresolved questions regarding it,

has drawn the attention of numerous communication researchers. Major developments

in the field of humour in advertising started way back in late 1960s and 1970s. Some

important works include Sternthal and Craig (1973), Markiewicz (1974), Gruner

(1976) and Duncan (1979). Although, the reviews were written for different audiences



41/104


and with different purposes, the conclusions arrived at are very consistent. Out of

these, the most frequently cited work in most of the literatures is that of Sternthal and

Craigs (1973). They drew some tentative conclusions about the use of humour on a

number of communications goals:

1. Humorous messages attract attention and may detrimentally affect comprehension

2. Humour may distract the audience, resulting in counter-argumentation and an

increase in persuasion.

3. Although humorous messages appear to be persuasive, the persuasive effect is not

too much greater than that of serious messages.

4. Humour enhances source credibility.

5. Audience characteristics may influence the effect of humour.

6. A humorous message may increase liking and create a positive mood, which in turn

may increase persuasion.

These conclusions are viewed as tentative because, although based on a thorough

review of the then existing literature in 1973, this literature base was somewhat small

and consisted almost exclusively of non-advertising studies and a few laboratory

experiments as there was simply little prior work in advertising to review. In the years

since the Stemthal and Craig work, humour has received extensive further

investigation in over 50 studies that have appeared not only in the marketing and

advertising literatures, but also in the field of communication and psychology.



42/104


Figure 3.1 - Tactical considerations for humour in advertising

Source: Weinberger and Gulas (1992)

Weinberger and Gulas (1992) suggested that although no one study can account for

all the contingencies that affect humour, and instead the researchers must begin to

incorporate the factors that appear to influence humour if progress is to be made in

understanding its effects. They updated and expanded on the Stemthal and Craig

(1973) work by including execution, placement, audience and product factors in the

examination of the effect of humour in advertising. They also studied and analyzed

various existing literatures between 1965 and 1992 before pointing out the detrimental



43/104


parameters in any kind of a humorous ad. Figure 3.1 shows the factors to be

considered in humorous advertising.

The above figure points out the important aspects of humour in advertising: product,

message type, intended goal, type of audience et al. According to Weinberger and

Gulas (1992), it is not feasible to assess whether humour in advertising is effective,

and instead the most appropriate way to analyze the role of humour would be to

answer the following questions:

1. What communications goals are most likely to be achieved through the use of

humour?

2. What message factors are likely to affect the outcome?

3. For what audience is humour most appropriate?

4. What product factors suggest the use or non-use of a humorous approach?

Though the fundamental question of humour's effectiveness in advertising remains

unanswered, we can analyze the accounts of past and present humour research in the

context of proper constraints and boundaries to gain better insights about its effects. In

the succeeding sections, the study focuses on the different views of various literatures

regarding the effect of humour in advertisements, with the work of Weinberger and

Gulas (1992), Spotts et al. (1997) and Speck (1991) in the hindsight.



44/104


3.2) A framework for examining advertising humour (Speck,1991):

Given the mixed evidences and varying points of views, it would seem appropriate to

askwhen humour in advertising is effective rather than if humour is effective (Cline

and Kellaris, 1999). Spotts et al. (1997) conceptualized a model (figure 3.2) with a

product-contingent focus for examining humour in magazine advertising based on the

framework of Speck (1991). The same model can be used in general since it takes into

account the background factors and message factors shown in figure 3.2. The

resulting approach also provides a clearer understanding of the appropriate use of

humour through the examination of:

l. The humour mechanisms employed,

2. The relatedness of humour to the ad or product, and

3. The type of productadvertised.

There has been considerable amount of work done on humour mechanisms and

humour relatedness over the past few years by many researchers and practitioners,

which would be discussed further. On the other hand, the effect the product has on the

choice and evaluation of an ad has not been studied thoroughly as yet. Although it is

not viable to get an exact point of view in this regard, the work of Weinberger et al.

(1995) provides a useful framework to understand product contingencies, which is

also included in this section.



45/104


Figure 3.2 - A framework for advertising humour

(Source: Spotts et al., 1997)

1) Humour mechanisms or humour type:

The mechanisms that govern humour can be grouped into three broad categories:

affective, cognitive and interpersonal (McGhee 1974; Wicker, Barron, and Willis

1980). Although there is no generally accepted taxonomy for humour (Gruner 1991),

these three mechanisms together are believed to drive humour. In contrast to more

technique-oriented typologies, the three mechanisms mentioned are psychologically

based and provide a conceptual rather than an operational starting point for studying

humour (Beard, 2008). Speck (1987, 1991) recognized the value of the more



46/104


theoretical approach and encompassed the three basic humour mechanisms in his

empirical work which represent the three conceptual variations in humour: arousal-

safety (affective), incongruity (cognitive), and disparagement (social) (see Figure

3.2). Prior research on humour types and audience response has focused

predominantly on incongruity-resolution humour, whereas arousal-safety and

disparagement have gone almost entirely un-investigated (Beard, 2008). Also, the

Arousal-safety and disparagement-based humour mechanisms often require subtle

cues that may be communicated more effectively through sight, motion and sound,

thus making the usage of these in magazine-based advertisements sparse (Spotts et al.,

1997). These, when used individually or together, generate five humorous

advertisement types: resonant humour, comic wit, resonant wit, satire and full comedy

(Beard 2007; Beard and Tarpenning, 2005; Speck, 1991). This study adopts Specks

framework because it is most deeply rooted in the humour literature and is easier to

correlate it with the concept of advertising.

Arousal-safety mechanism:

Arousal-safety is also referred to by a few researchers as release or relief theories

(Keith-Spiegel, 1972; McGhee, 1983; Morreal, 1983; Rothbart, 1977). Here, the basic

stimulus of arousal is the induction of anxiety or uncertainty for oneself or another.

The tension is relieved when people are able to make a safety judgment that the

object of the anxiety is either safe or the consequences insignificant, which often

results in feelings of good will (Speck, 1991). For instance, viewers may have

experienced empathy or anxiety for someone or something in the ad that experienced

or narrowly avoided some kind of minor disaster. The ad is likely to encourage warm,



47/104


sentimental feelings, sympathy or an outpouring of goodwill (Beard, 2008). Arousal-

safety theory, however, also explains the humorous effects of potentially offensive

stimuli, such as embarrassing social situation, fear appeals, shockingly graphic

images, or explicit sexual remarks and actions (Beard and Tarpenning, 2005; Speck,

1991). Furthermore, Beards (2004) review of the advertising humour literature led

him to suggest arousal-safety humour might more frequently lead to offense,

compared to the other humour types.

Disparagement mechanism:

This mechanism is based on Superiority theory, which is perhaps the earliest theory of

humour and laughter. This view, originated by Plato, emphasizes on laughter as a

result of feeling superior to others by using jokes, puns or something else which can

evoke such a feeling (LaFave 1972). In this mechanism, the ads ridicule something or

someone, such as a rival firm or another advertiser. The intention of the ad is to

spread humour by making someone feel superior to someone else and to show the

victim of attack in a negative light by using satire or sarcasm (for example, Coca Cola

ads normally disparage Pepsi Co products and vice versa). According to Beard

(2008), in this form of humour mechanism, the ad takes form of implicit or explicit

criticism, a judgment or evaluation, a put-down, or the exposure of someones

silliness, stupidity or folly. Disparagement humour is also called Ha-ha humour

(Behrens et al., 1999), which means that someone is just laughing at something with

the laughter having a mainly affective background. Origins of this theory go back to

Aristotle and Plato, who presented definitions for humour and comedy as something

that makes us laugh when the evil or ugly is ridiculed or suffers.



48/104


If the ad encourages viewers to identify personally with the object of the

disparagement and views the victim in a positive light or makes the audience feel

sympathetic or indifferent towards the victim, the mechanism used is arousal-safety

and not disparagement (Beard, 2008). For example, in an ad if someone slips and falls

in a crowded place, but viewers are not encouraged to feel that the victim deserved the

accident, it is arousal-safety and not disparagement.

Incongruity mechanism:

The most popular and also the most widely used strategy for breaking through

consumers perceptual screens is to present information that is incongruent with

their pre-existing expectations (Heckler & Childers, 1992). By using incongruent

images, advertisers increase attention and the extent to which the target information is

processed. According to this mechanism, an incongruity (deviation from the expected)

is followed by a resolution in which the incongruity is understood. In other words,

incongruity theory contends that people perceive humour when a stimulus is

consistent with two partially or fully contrasting scripts and a punch line switches

them from one to the other, triggering a resolution of the incongruity (Beard et al.,

2005; Raskin, 1985; Speck, 1991). The initial response to this type of ad may be a

cognitively based discrepancy reaction (Huh!). More elaboration may resolve the

meaning of the humour (Aha!) and generate a response (Ha Ha!) (Krishnan and

Chakravarti, 2003). In this mechanism, the ads, besides being witty, or silly, are

generally incongruent, unexpected, possibly surprising and sometimes impossible

(e.g., talking animals, dancing trees), inducing play confusion amongst audiences. The

ads that are initially viewed as surprising, confusing or unrelated ultimately fall into



49/104


place and make sense to the viewers or readers when the punch line makes sense at

some level with the earlier incongruent information in the joke. It is believed that

more unexpected the incongruity, the greater is the humour response (Weinberger and

Gulas, 2004). Some incongruity theorists though, believe that incongruity itself may

be sufficient to produce humour and may not need an explicit resolution. But, several

studies suggest that incongruity alone, without resolution may leave the audience

frustrated because they might not get the joke (Walden and Hoyer, 1993). It is

expected that the incongruity-resolution combination presents a more humorous

situation that the same incongruity without a punch line (Flaherty, Weinberger and

Gulas, 2004). The approach is based on the assumption that the crucial factor in a

humorous advertisement is a kind of incongruity which surprises the recipient. While

he/she expects some certain features based on earlier experiences with similar

situations, the ad generally evokes a situation that does not comply with the

recipients expectations. However, in order to be humorous, the situational context

must be safe and non-threatening (Beard, 2008). The incongruity often appears in

combination with a pun or a metaphor. This type of humour is also called Ah-ha

humour (Behrens et al., 1999) as the consumer experiences intellectual pleasure by

solving a small challenge.

Resonant humour is generated entirely by the arousal-safety mechanism and comic

wit is generated entirely by the incongruity-resolution mechanism (Beard and

Tarpenning, 2005; Speck, 1991). The resonant wit advertisement type is generated by

a combination of arousal-safety and incongruity-resolution. Satire is produced by a

combination of the incongruity-resolution and disparagement mechanisms (Beard and

Tarpenning, 2005; Speck, 1991). In satire, the stimulus of humour arousal is the



50/104


disparaging portrayal of another and the resulting tension is a mixture of enjoyment

tinged with anxiety or guilt over enjoyment of the disparagement (Beard, 2008). The

fifth type of humorous advertisement, full comedy, is a function of all three

mechanisms.

2) Humour relatedness:

There is also research on the extent to which advertising humour is related to the

product or service advertised, although it is not too detailed (Beard, 2008). In addition

to the basic humour mechanisms, Speck (1991) outlined a broader typology of

humour that incorporates the relatedness of humour in an ad on three levels:

intentional, structural and thematic as shown in figure 3.1. Speck's comprehensive

treatment of relatedness is cited very often by most researchers in literary theory and

semiotics.

Intentional Relatedness:

Intentional relatedness refers to how the humour is related to message type and

message processing (i.e. the degree of dominance of humour in the message).

Intentional

apeksha j nayak(08vwcm6006)

Documents