SARASWATI: THE LOST RIVER

SARASWATI: THE LOST RIVERCollections of articles and comments

ByDeepak Ramchandani

June-2014

Sarasvati RiverTheSarasvati River(Sanskrit: srasvat nad) is one of the mainRigvedic riversmentioned in ancientSanskrittexts. TheNadistutihymn in theRigveda(10.75) mentions the Sarasvati between theYamunain the east and theSutlejin the west, and later Vedic texts like Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas as well as theMahabharatamention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert. The goddessSarasvatiwas originally a personification of this river, but later developed an independent identity and gained a different meaning. The identification of the Vedic Sarasvati River with theGhaggar-Hakra Riverwas accepted by most of scholars already in the 19th and early 20th century, includingChristian Lassen, Max Mller,Marc Aurel Stein, C.F. Oldhamand Jane Macintosh,while Rajesh Kochhar believes that theHelmand Riverof southernAfghanistancorresponds to the Sarasvati River.According to proto-historian Michel Danino, in ancient times a mature river flowed into the Ghaghar-Hakra valley and into theRann of Kutch, which he identifies as the Rig Vedic Sarasvati river. Course of the SaraswatiAccording to geological and glaciological studies, the Sarasvati originated in theBandapunchMassif, from the Sarawati-Rupin glacier confluence at Naitwar in western Garhwal. Descending through the foothills viaAdibadri,Bhavanipur, andBalchapur, the river took a roughly southwesterly course, passing through the plains ofPunjab,Haryana,Rajasthan, andGujarat, to finally debouch into theArabian Seaat the GreatRann of Kutch. Three major tributaries are proposed: theSutlej, theDrishadvati, and theYamuna. The river flowed down the presentGhaggar-Hakra Riverchannel, and that of theNarainSindh. An ancient drainage network formed of several paleochannels, largely buried under the sands of theThar Desert, is located in westernRajasthanand nearby states, parallel to theAravalli Hills. Which and how many of these channels (from only one to as many as seven have been suggested) belong to the Saraswati is disputed. Activefaultsare present in the region, and lateral and verticaltectonicmovements have frequently diverted streams in the past. The Saraswati may have migrated westward due to such uplift of the Aravallis. Palaeo-drainage network formed by several palaeochannels has been worked out by different researchers in western Rajasthan and neighbouring states, which is mainly buried under sand cover of theThar Desertand parallel to theAravalli Hills. It is unclear whether the full flow of the paleo-Saraswati was present during theHolocene. Some studies suggest that the Yamuna and Sutlej were lost during thePleistocene, and that the Saraswati was a much smaller river, fed entirely by monsoon rains rather than glacial streams, during the mid-late Holocene (including the Vedic period).Others dispute this, citing evidence that it was a large perennial river draining the high mountains as late as 37002500 years ago. Recent Hindu belief is that still Saraswati river flows underground and meets Yamuna and Ganga attheir confluence in Prayag (Allahabad).,

By A. V. SankaranNEARLYten thousand years ago when mighty rivers started flowing down the Himalayan slopes, western Rajasthan was green and fertile. Great civilizations prospered in the cool amiable climate on riverbanks of northwestern India. The abundant waters of the rivers and copious rains provided ample sustenance for their farming and other activities. Some six thousand years later, Saraswati, one of the rivers of great splendour in this region, for reasons long enigmatic, dwindled and dried up. Several other rivers shifted their courses, some of their tributaries were pirated by neigbouring rivers or severed from their main courses. The greenery of Rajasthan was lost, replaced by an arid desert where hot winds piled up dunes of sand. The flourishing civilizations vanished one by one. By geological standards, these are small-scale events; for earth, in its long 4.5 billion years history, had witnessed many such changes, some of them even accompanied by wiping out of several living species. But those that occurred in northwest India took place within the span of early human history affecting the livelihood of flourishing civilizations and driving them out to other regions.The nemesis that overtook northwestern Indias plenty and prosperity along with the disappearance of the river Saraswati, has been a subject engaging several minds over the last hundred and fifty years. However, convincing explanations about what caused all the changes were available only in the later half of the current century through data gathered by archaeologists, geologists, geophysicists, and climatologists using a variety of techniques. They have discussed and debated their views in symposia held from time to time, many of which have also appeared in several publications. Over the last thirty years, considerable volume of literature have grown on the subject and in this article some of the salient opinions expressed by various workers are presented.Rivers constitute the lifeline for any country and some of the worlds great civilizations (Indus Valley, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian) have all prospered on banks of river systems. Hindus consider rivers as sacred and have personified them as deities and sung their praises in their religious literature, theVedas (Rig,YajurandAtharva), Manusmriti, PuranasandMahabharata.These cite names of several rivers that existed during the Vedic period and which had their origin in the Himalayas. One such river Saraswati, has been glorified in these texts and referred by various names like Markanda, Hakra, Suprabha, Kanchanakshi, Visala, Manorama etc.1,2, andMahabharatahas exalted Saraswati River as covering the universe and having seven separate names2.Rig vedadescribes it as one of seven major rivers of Vedic times, the others being, Shatadru (Sutlej), Vipasa (Beas), Askini (Chenab), Parsoni or Airavati (Ravi), Vitasta (Jhelum) and Sindhu (Indus)1,3,4(Figure 1). For full 2000y (between 6000 and 4000BC), Saraswati had flowed as a great river before it was obliterated in a short span of geological time through a combination of destructive natural events.Judged in the broader perspective of geological evolution, disappearance or disintegration of rivers, shifting of their courses, capture of one river by another (river piracy), steady decline of waters culminating in drying up of their beds, are all normal responses to tectonism (uplift, faulting, subsidence, tilting), earthquakes, adverse climate and other natural events. Such catastrophic events overtook Saraswati river in quick succession, within a short geological span in the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era (Figure 1) leading to its decline and disappearance. Similar changes to drainage of rivers have occurred during earlier geological periods also, much before human evolution. A few of the south Indian rivers like the east-flowing Pennar, Palar and Cauvery draining into the Bay of Bengal and west-flowing Swarna, Netravathi and Gurupur draining into the Arabian Sea are known to have changed their courses or got dismembered due to uplift of land. Today, their former courses or palaeochannels can be seen as dry beds58.Saraswati evolution and drainageThe river Saraswati, during its heydays, is described to be much bigger than Sindhu or the Indus River. During the Vedic period, this river had coursed through the region between modern Yamuna and Sutlej. Though Saraswati is lost, many of its contemporary rivers like Markanda, Chautang and Ghaggar have outlived it and survived till today. All the big rivers of this periodSaraswati, Shatadru (Sutlej), Yamuna derived their waters from glaciers which had extensively covered the Himalayas during the Pleistocene times. The thawing of these glaciers during Holocene, the warm period that followed, generated many rivers, big and small, coursing down the Himalayan slopes. The melting of glaciers has also been referred in Rigvedic literature, in mythological terms, as an outcome of war between God Indra and the demon Vritra1,9.The enormity of waters available for agriculture and other occupations during those times had prompted the religiously bent ancient inhabitants to describe reverentially seven mighty rivers or Sapta Sindhu, as divine rivers arising from slowly moving serpent (Ahi), an apparent reference to the movement of glaciers3.According to geological and glaciological studies11,13, Saraswati was supposed to have originated in Bandapunch masiff (Sarawati-Rupin glacier confluence at Naitwar in western Garhwal). Descending through Adibadri, Bhavanipur and Balchapur in the foothills to the plains, the river took roughly a southwesterly course, passing through the plains of Punjab, Haryana,Rajasthan, Gujarat and finally it is believed to have debouched into the ancient Arabian Sea at the Great Rann of Kutch. In this long journey, Saraswati was believed to have had three tributaries, Shatadru (Sutlej) arising from Mount Kailas, Drishadvati from Siwalik Hills and the old Yamuna. Together, they flowed along a channel, presently identified as that of the Ghaggar river, also called Hakra River in Rajasthan and Nara in Sindh1,11(Figure 2). The rivers, Saraswati and Ghaggar, are therefore supposed to be one and the same, though a few workers use the name Ghaggar to describe Saraswatis upper course and Hakra to its lower course, while some others refer Saraswati of weak and declining stage, by the name Ghaggar12.

Scientists hope to find water under the desert

Deep in the western Rajasthan desert, not far from the security- conscious border with Pakistan, an extraordinary programme is underway. Giant drilling rigs probe deep into the dry, arid earth pulling out undisturbed layers of soil and sediment for scientists to study and test. Water engineers are exploring the region's ancient riverbeds for what they call groundwater - underground reservoirs that contain perfectly drinkable water. If they are successful, their discovery could transform the lives of thousands of locals who currently experience harsh water shortages. Mr KS Sriwastawa of the Rajasthan State Groundwater Board believes one of these ancient buried channels may be the Saraswati. He knows the stories refer to the ancient river flowing through this area and says excitedly that carbon dating has revealed that the water they are finding is 4000 years old. That would date it to the time of the Saraswati. The modern search for the Saraswati was first sparked by an English engineer called CF Oldham in 1893 when he was riding his horse along the dry bed of a seasonal Rajasthani river called the Ghaggar. As he rode on, he was struck by a sudden thought. The Ghaggar when it flowed, was a small, puny river and there was no reason for its bed to be up to 3km wide in places unless it occupied the former course of a much larger river - the Saraswati. The discovery of a vast prehistoric civilisation that lived along the banks of a major river, has added impetus to the growing modern belief that the Saraswati has been found. Over 1000 archaeological sites have been found on the course of this river and they date from 3000 BC. One of these sites is the prehistoric town of Kalibangan in northern Rajasthan. The town has proved a treasure trove of information about the Bronze Age people who actually lived on the banks of the Saraswati. Archaeologists have discovered that there were priests, farmers, merchants and very advanced artists and craftsmen living there. Highly sophisticated seals on which there is evidence of writing have also been found, indicating that these people were literate, but unfortunately the seals have never been deciphered. They may well hold the clue to the mystery of what happened to the Saraswati and whether it has really been found again. The Miracle River is [was] broadcast at 3.30pm on Saturday 29 June, 2002 on BBC Radio 4

Times News Network [ SATURDAY, JUNE 15, 2002 1:05:27 AM ]

NEW DELHI: A day after Culture Minister Jagmohan announced excavation to trace the ancient course of the Saraswati, the 'lost' river of Harappan civilisation, he has already set up a team of four "experts" who will undertake this onerous task. Though Jagmohan denies the project is linked to the Sangh Parivar's agenda of equating Harappan civilisation with Hindus, he does talk of myths associated with several areas in Haryana where the Saraswati presumably once flowed. "Marxist historians have fed us on a certain kind of history. One should not close options," he says, adding, "If there is any evidence of Saraswati, we will see it, otherwise we will not push forward any view." The four experts Baldeo Sahai of ISRO, Ahmedabad, archaeologist S Kalyan Raman, glaciaologist YK Puri, and water consultant Madhav Chitle -- will carry out the first phase of excavation from Adi Badri to Bhagwanpura in Haryana followed in second phase from Bhagwanpura to Kalibangan on Rajasthan border. Along with tracing the river's course, the experts have been tasked with deepening Kapalmochan and Ranmochan "two wells fed by Saraswati where Pandavas had come and taken bath," says Jagmohan. If the effort does not yield Saraswati water in the wells, the experts have been told tap tubewells. "People consider it sacred. Right now water is muddy. Tubewellwater will be clean and faithfuls can take bath," says Jagmohan. Another place where Saraswati will be traced is Thanesar, capital of Harshvardhan, a few kilometres from Kurukshetra. "Saraswati flowed here also and we have marked six points to trace its route," says Jagmohan. Plan also is to excavate seven mounds in Rakhigarhi, where minister claims five are of Harappan lineage and two of pre-Harappan times. With all this work, Jagmohan is "confident that Saraswati will come alive." But Jagmohan's confidence is not shared by noted historians Suraj Bhan and Irfan Habib. Says Suraj Bhan, "In the 1960s, I worked in this area to trace the Saraswati's route. In Adi-badri no course of the Saraswati can be seen." He also denies having found any evidence related to Pandava period in this area. "The legend goes that there were 1400 pilgrim centres on the Saraswati. RSS for decades has been working on the Saraswati project. In 1980s, its Itihas Sankalan Samiti and Apte Memorial Committee did take it up in a big way. The idea is to revive brahminism and sanctity of Vedas. Now it is showing dividends," he observes. "All of us know there is water underground which will come out through excavation anywhere," he says. "How can it be called Saraswati's water. Important thing is to trace the dry course of Ghaggar which has already been done." Habib, who has written extensively on Saraswati, feels the exercise is a "waste of money". The Hindutva historians, he notes, claimed Saraswati flowed from the Himalayas and now they are tracing it in the foothills of the Shivaliks. "This is an attempt by the RSS to make Harappan civilisation synonymous with Saraswati culture," he says.

The Tribune, Chandigarh, June 13, 2002 Our Correspondent

Yamunanagar, June 12. Union Culture and Tourism Minister Jagmohan has said research work on the Saraswati river would be undertaken on a priority basis. While addressing a seminar on Saraswati river research held here today, he said the Saraswati, originating from har Ki Doon glacier in the interior Himalayas, after crossing the Shivalik range, enters into the plains, near Adi Badri in the district. He said he had been to Adi Badri today along with Union Minister of State for Home I.D. Swami. He said since the last century, several scholars and organizations had been making efforts to trace the course of Saraswati river. He lauded the contribution of the National Remote Sensing Agency, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, the Indian Space Research Organization, the Geological Survey of India and the Central Water Commission in this regard.He announced that the work regarding tracing the course of Saraswati river would be started shortly in two phases, first from Adi Badri to Bhagwanpura and in Kurukshetra district and second from Bhagawanpur to Sirsa. He also announced that watershed management and water-harvesting dams would be constructed shortly by the Union Government. Mr. Jagmohan announced that an international seminar on Saraswati river will be conducted at Kurukshetra in December. Haryana Chief Minister Om Prakash Chautala assured the Union Government that the state government would provide all assistance in the development of Adi Badri and Kapal Mochan as pilgrim spots. He said Saraswati was revered not merely for its sanctity but also for being the mother of the ancient civilization and cradle of vedic literature that was conceived on its banks.

Times News Network [ SATURDAY, JUNE 15, 2002 1:29:54 AM ] SHIMLA: Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Prakalp, Bangalore, director Dr S Kalyanaraman said on Friday that the search for the "mythical" Sarasvati river, which began about 16 years ago, had reached a stage where it could be said that the river was neither a myth nor a legend, but hard fact. Delivering a lecture organized by the Institute of Integrated Himalayan Studies at the Himachal University here, he said that after years of intensive research through scientific techniques, he could trace the origin of the river and the civilization which prospered along its banks. ``The revival of Sarasvati river begins in Haryana, with the water harvesting project from Adh Badri through Bilaspur and Kapala Mochan up to Pehoa, a distance of about 150 km, check-dams, clearing of the water-ways, restoration and renewal of the ghats of river and elimination of pollutants,'' he said. "It is a proud moment that our engineers and scientists have established the feasibility of reviving this great Vedic river, with a conjunctive use of surface and sub-surface drainage systems. The feasibility study of the National Water Development Agency has been going on for the last 19 years and is continuing," he added. Kalyanaraman said that the Rajasthan Canal, also called Sarasvati Mahanadirupanahar, was now flowing till Danan in Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan and would be extended to Gedra Road in Barmer district of the state. "The waters of Sutlej river, which was the anchorage river of Sarasvati, flowing from Harike can be taken to the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, through the Mahanadirupanahar," he added. He said that of the nearly 2600 archeological sites of varying sizes, over 1500 settlements were found on the Sarasvati river basin, which included settlements larger than those of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Director of Himalayan Studies Yoginder Verma said that the research project being undertaken by the Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Prakalp aimed at making the river flow again in north-west India from Mansarovar to Gujarat and to interlink Himalayan and peninsular rivers to create a 40,000-km long national waterway in the country. This, along with the long coastline, would improve the infrastructure facilities in the country and complement the railways and national highways, he added.

The week.com AHMEDABAD, INDIA, August18, 2002:

The government of India, with the assistance of hydrologists, geologists, archaeologists and space scientists, is trying to bring back the Saraswati River, which dried up in Vedic times. The dry bed of the "mythological" river was spotted in satellite photos, five miles wide, coursing from the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea. Some water still flows along this course, but underground. The government's attempt is to tap this water in wells and reservoirs, so that Hindus may once again be blessed by the Saraswati's sacred waters.

PTI [TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 04, 2003 05:34:22 PM] KURUKSHETRA: Union Minister for Tourism and Culture Jagmohan on Tuesday announced that the Centre has launched a scheme of unearthing lost cities, which once existed along the embankments of Saraswati River, and left a number of signposts of the Saraswati-Indus civilization from Adi Badri near Kurukshetra to Dhola Vira in Gujarat. Addressing the students of Kurukshetra University at the 25th convocation here he said that "all these signposts are intended to be converted into new centres, all over the country, in which elements of culture, tourism and clean civic life are being synthesised. Kurukshetra is being given a top position in the list of such centres, Jagmohan added. He said, "Believe me, a revolution is in the making. Kurukshetra would become not only a world class tourism destination but also a pace-setter for this revolution". Adding that a new life was being injected in Kurukshetra which would make it a symbol of a resurgent and reawakened India. Chancellor of the University, Babu Parmanand, conferred the honorary degree of Doctorate of Philosophy (honoris causa) upon Jagmohan in recognition of the exceptionally meritorious services rendered by him to the nation. Babu Parmanand also conferred Ph.D upon 121 students and M.Phil on 47 students in different subjects. Chief Minister Om Prakash Chautala awarded medals to the outstanding students of the university.Times of India: NEW DELHI, INDIA, July 26, 2003: It has been reported that to uncover ancient Hindu cultural sites, the Indian government, in collaboration with the Department of Tourism, has started excavating along the legendary Saraswati River from Haryana to Gujarat. The task is an arduous one in a land where the local people are often not aware of the value of their heritage and artifacts from cultural sites are often smuggled out of the country. Tourism Minister Jagmohan says, "We are shortly coming up with an amendment to the existing legislation on protection of antiques and arts which will make illegal trafficking a cognisable offense and give police the powers of seizure." As they forge ahead with the excavation, it is expected that treasures, such as abandoned towns and habitations from the Harappan civilization dating well before 3000 bce, will be revealed. The Tourism Department has grand plans to house the artefacts uncovered in museums to attract tourists. Communities along the dried up river have been encouraged to keep the environment around the heritage sites clean. After Jagmohan addressed an interactive meeting organized by UNESCO about the heritage sites, Indian-born Australian Amareswar Galla commented, "As long as you have poverty, you will have problem with dealing illicit trafficking in cultural property, be it India or elsewhere."

Reasons of drying up of Saraswati River

Tectonic movements pushed up theAravali hills, in northern Rajasthan. This changed the drainage pattern of the Northwest drastically.Saraswati lost her major tributaries, Yamuna and Sutlej.Sutlej turned west and joined Beas-Sindhu system, and Yamuna started migrating east to join Ganga.Yamuna (erstwhile Chambal) which is now a tributary of the Ganga, captured the Saraswati source at Paontasaheb (where there is a famous Sikh shrine in Punjab).Thus the popular belief ofSangam at Prayag is based on groundtruth and not mythical. The Yamuna captured Saraswati and took her to join Ganga at Prayag, near Allahabad. Hence, we say that Prayag is a sangam of 3 rivers (Ganga, Yamuna & Saraswati).Though there are multiple reasons of drying up of a water body including the excess amount of silt etc. The aandhi phenomenon also accounted for the submergence of the river bed by sandstorms.

The volume of water flowing down the Saraswati had reduced, Waters of Saraswati did not make it upto the sea. Yamuna at this time, partly flowed westwards to meet Saraswati and partly flowed eastwards to meet Ganga.At the time of Krishnas birth Yamuna was not as mighty as it is today. Hence it must have been possible forKrishnas father Vasudevto cross the river, with the new born Krishna in his arms.It is described in Mahabharat, that Balaram travelled along the almost dry banks of Saraswati, and then along the banks of Yamuna, from Prabhas (Somnath) to Mathura.Today, Ghaggar; a puny seasonal river, occupies some parts of Saraswatis dry beds. The dry vast bed called the Hakra-Nara channels lie in the western Rajasthan

The immortal mystery of River Saraswati

Rivers constitute the lifeline for any nation. All worlds great civilizations prospered on banks of river systems. The most ancient religion, Hinduism also considers rivers as sacred, singing their praises in the religious literature. This refers to names of many rivers that existed during the Vedic period (1500 - 500 BCE). One such river,Saraswati, found its glory in these scriptures.

DuringIce Age, the water of Himalayas was frozen. In the place of rivers, there were only masses of solid ice. Around ten thousand years back, when the climate became warmer, the Himalayas released seven mighty rivers. As per theRig Veda, among these, the Saraswati and the Indus were major rivers, flowing parallel from the mountains to the Arabian Sea. According to theMahabharata, after flowing as a great river for 2000 years, the Sarasvati disappeared in desert, reappeared in some places and then joined the sea "impetuously".

Described to be much bigger than the Indus River, the legend of the Saraswati has lived on. Centuries passed, but no one could find where this great river was. Some promoted it as an invisible river that still flows underground to meet the Ganges and theYamunaat Allahabad. The confluence of these three rivers, which is not visible to the eye, passed Saraswati into therealm of folklore. Those, who kept this mysterious river alive in their imaginations, found their world when scientists mapped the course of anenormous dried up riverbeneath the sands of Thar Desert. This 3500 year old palaeochannel is believed to be the mythical Saraswati.

In 1893, CF Oldham, an English engineer rode his horse along the dry bed of a seasonal Rajasthani river. Oldham wondered whyGhaggar, despite being a small river, had bed up to 3 km wide at places. He proposed thatGhaggarmust have occupied the former course of a much larger river - the Saraswati. Supporting this belief,sweet water gushed out of the landwhen a devastating earthquake hit Kutch (Gujrat) in 2001. After being analyzed at a laboratory, this water was found to be more than 5000 years old. Since Kutch is an earthquake prone area, this strengthens experts belief that Saraswati is still flowing down deep, but does not have enough water to appear on the surface.

After a lot of geological and glaciological studies, experts concluded that if dried out channel belonged to Saraswati then her origin had to be theYamdhar Glacier(Himalayas). She flowed as a beautiful stream, and then took a southwesterly course passing through the plains of Haryana and Rajasthan. In this long journey, Saraswati was believed to haveSutlejand the oldYamunaas tributaries. During her peak flow, todays western Rajasthan was green and fertile.Great civilizationsprospered in such amiable climate on riverbanks. Experts believe that theIndus Valley Civilizationwas largely located on the banks of and in the proximity of the Saraswati River. Between 2000 to 1800 BCE, a dry spell heralded the decline of the Indus Valley civilization, right after the disappearance of Saraswati in 3000 BC.Saraswati The vanished RiverAround the beginning of Pleistocene, massive landslides and avalanches uplifted the Himalayas. Under such upheavals, the rivers were forced to change their courses, gradually or abruptly. Tributaries of Saraswati, theSutlejdiverted towards the Indus and theYamunatowards the Ganges, following which Saraswati did not have enough water to reach the sea. Since thegreeneryof Rajasthan was lost, replaced by an arid desert, shedried up in the Thar Desert. The glorious civilization shifted possibly to the fertile plains of the Ganga andYamuna.Saraswatscommunity, which lived on the banks of the Saraswati over the millenniums, scattered all over India. Even today,Saraswatscontinue to follow their ancient culture, venerating the lost river as their cultural mother.In Libya an ancient river channel has been discovered and revitalized into a man made river. The same way, if Saraswati could also be rejuvenated,a mythological glorywould come alive, breaking all time barriers.Did this interview with Michel Danino, for the paper today. Danino in his latest bookThe Lost River: On the Trail of the Sarasvati, traces the death of the river Sarasvati.Pasting the complete interview after this.The common belief that the invisible river Sarasvati meets the Ganga and the Yamuna at the Prayag in Allahabad is just that: a belief. "After the collapse of the Harappan civilization some of the Late Harappans moved eastward, crossing Ganga, and it is likely that they did not want to forget the sacred river. So they restored it in the new location, but as an "invisible" river," saysMichel Danino, a Frenchman, who has lived in India for more than 25 years and has most recently authoredThe Lost River: On the Trail of the Sarasvati(Penguin Books India, 2010). In this interview he speaks toVivek Kaul.A large number people believe that the search for the lost river Sarasvati is a very recent phenomenon. Is that true?It is the recent study of the Sarasvati basin through satellite imagery that gives this wrong impression. But explorations of the region by British topographers, surveyors and geologists began in the 1820s, as I documented in my book. They soon noted a wide but dry riverbed running more or less parallel to the Indus through a mostly arid region. It was called "Ghaggar" and "Hakra" further downstream. They recorded numerous ruined mounds along its banks, local traditions of a "lost river of the Great Indian Desert" - a loss that explained the desolation of the region - and finally the presence of freshwater wells along that bed. Other explorations followed, building up a considerable body of evidence by the end of the nineteenth century.From the evidence that is available, where exactly did the Ghaggar-Hakra river start and through which parts of India did it flow?The Ghaggar-Hakra starts its course in the Shivalik Hills, flows through today's Haryana (it still does so during good monsoons), continues (its dry course, rather) through Punjab, northern Rajasthan, then into Cholistan (the Pakistani extension of the Thar Desert), and finally all the way to the Rann of Kachchh. This course was clearly marked, for instance, in a map of 1893 drawn by C.F. Oldham, who was a surgeon-major in the Indian Army, but also an Indologist.So the Ghaggar-Hakra river system that flows through Rajasthan into Pakistan is the Sarasvati?If in the nineteenth century most scholars identified the Ghaggar-Hakra's course with the Vedic Sarasvati, it is basically for three reasons. The Rig-Veda, the oldest of the four Vedas, mentions various rivers but praises the Sarasvati above all others: it was a "mighty river" flowing "from the mountain to the sea", and one hymn listed it between the Yamuna and the Sutlej - precisely the location of the Ghaggar-Hakra. Secondly, the local traditions regarding the "lost river" of the Indian desert matched those in the post-Vedic literature (including the Mahabharata), which recorded the gradual disappearance of the Sarasvati. Thirdly, scholars noticed a minor tributary of the Ghaggar called "Sarsuti", an obvious corruption of "Sarasvati": it rises in the Sirmur hills that are part of the Shivaliks and was marked on British maps as early as in 1788. Putting these three lines of evidence together, they concluded that the lost Sarasvati could only have flowed in the Ghaggar's bed. In fact it was a French geographer, Vivien de Saint-Martin, who reached this conclusion for the first time - in 1855! Since then, most archaeologists have accepted this identity between the Ghaggar-Hakra and the Sarasvati.You suggest in the book that Sarasvati was an important part of the Harappan civilization. How did you come to that conclusion?In 1917 Marc Aurel Stein, a famous explorer and archaeologist, who was also a fine Sanskritist, wrote a paper on "river names in the Rig-Veda" in which he endorsed the consensus on the Sarasvati's location. A few years later, the Harappan civilization was discovered, limited at first to the Indus valley. However, Aurel Stein had an intuition that it might extend eastward into the Sarasvati valley. He had to wait till 1940, when he was 78, before he could undertake an expedition in the then Bikaner and Bahawalpur states. For the first time, he found among the ruined mounds of the Cholistan desert (today in Pakistan) evidence of Harappan culture: pottery (some of it inscribed with the characteristic Harappan script), flint blades, shell ornaments etcAfter Independence and Partition, Indian archaeologists followed suit, identifying dozens of Harappan sites further upstream. Today, we know that the Sarasvati basin was home to some 360 Harappan sites (of the "Mature" or urban phase), making it one of the major heartlands of this first urban civilization on Indian soil.How did the Sarasvati river dry up and disappear?The explanation offered by most scholars, geologists in particular, is that the Sarasvati was partly fed by waters from the Sutlej (in the west) and the Yamuna (in the east). Indeed many palaeo-channels connecting those three rivers systems have been traced. Now, the watershed between the Yamuna and the Sutlej is a very flat and seismically active region; it has been proposed that it underwent a slight upliftment, which drove away the Sutlej and the Yamuna, leaving the Sarasvati with only a few seasonal tributaries originating in the Shivaliks.Was the decline of the Harappan civilization due to the drying up or disappearance of Sarasvati?It does seem to have been a major contributory factor, but probably not the only one. It is certain that the urban Harappan sites in the Sarasvati basin, such as Kalibangan, Banawali or Rakhigarhi, had to be abandoned. In the Indus basin, on the contrary, floods and consequent shifts in the Indus appear to have occurred. All this must have greatly impacted agricultural resources and possibly the urban administration. The Harappan state was geographically quite overstretched, from the Yamuna almost to Iran, and from northern Afghanistan to the Narmada; it apparently could not survive these upheavals, and the Harappans had to revert to a rural stage.How did Indians start to believe that Sarasvati is the invisible river that merges with Ganga and Yamuna at Prayag?I think this is a transfer of name intended to remember the river, nothing more. Some of the Late Harappans moved eastward, crossing Ganga, and it is likely that they did not want to forget the sacred river. So they restored it in the new location, but as an "invisible" river. Such name transfers have been fairly common in India, showing that remembrance and continuity of worship mattered more to the people than geographical or historical accuracy.Currently, as I gather, from your book, there are five rivers named after the Sarasvati in the Yamuna-Sutlej divide. Where exactly are these rivers, and what are their exact names?Yes, five at least: the Sarsuti I mentioned above; a small Sirsa river that runs from Kalka to meet the Sutlej above Rupar ("Sirsa", like "Sarsuti", derives from "Sarasvati"); then, starting near Pushkar, the upper course of the Luni River is locally known as "Sarasvati"; finally, we find two Sarasvatis in Gujarat, one flowing from the Aravalli Hills to the Little Rann of Kachchh, and another joining two other rivers at Prabhas Patan in Saurashtra. All these rivers are in, or near, the basin of the original Sarasvati, and it seems plain enough that they testify to the sacredness of the original river and to a desire to preserve its memory.You write "the twenty-first century may well see the end of the 3,000 year old Ganges civilization." Why do you say that?Because the Ganges and its tributaries are now endangered rivers. Global warming threatens not only Himalayan glaciers, which are their sources, but the very existence of monsoons. Rapid but blind industrialization compounds these threats with intense pollution and wasteful use of water. The Ganges plains were the cradle of India's classical civilization; I hope they won't be its grave too.Legend has it that the beautiful goddess Saraswati sprung from the forehead of her father Brahma, the god of creation. It is said that as soon as Brahma looked at her beauty, he was filled with desire for her. Unhappy with the amorous attentions he bestowed upon her, she tried to dodge and hide. This is why the river Saraswati flows underground. And the brief appearance she made aboveground is the moment, legends assert, that she stopped to rest from her tiring run.Whatever the merits of this legend, on June 15, 2002, Union Minister for Culture Jagmohan announced excavations to trace the course of the river Saraswati.He has named a team of four experts -- Baldeo Sahai of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Ahmedabad, archaeologist S Kalyan Raman, glaciologist Y K Puri and water consultant Madhav Chitle -- for this task. They will carry out the first phase of excavations, from Adi Badri to Bhagwanpura in Haryana, followed by a second phase from Bhagwanpura to Kalibangan on the Rajasthan border.These experts will also look into deepening Kapalmochan and Ranmochan, two wells fed by Saraswati. It is believed that the Pandavas had taken a bath in these wells. If efforts to yield Saraswati water in these wells fail, experts have been told to tap tubewells. There will also be an attempt to trace the Saraswati at Thaneshwar -- once the capital of Harshvardhan -- a few kilometres (kms) from Kurukshetra.Novel as this project is, it is an extension of the work done by the Rajasthan Groundwater Department (RGWD). TheRGWDhad, as early as 1996, embarked on an ambitious project -- albeit confined to the state of Rajasthan -- to retrace an ancient network of water channels.These channels, buried 60 metres below the ground, were believed to be the route traced by the river Saraswati. TheRGWDwas clear about what it set out to do. Once these channels were retraced, and the sequence of the river flow established, it would go a long way in solving the water problem in arid Rajasthan. The theory was that these channels could transport surplus water from Punjab and Haryana during the monsoons, and store it for future use.RGWD's research, design and development division in Jodhpur is monitoring the project with a Rs 4.7 million grant from the Rajiv Gandhi National Mission for Drinking Water (RGNMDW). TheRGWDis assisted by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB),ISRO, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and the National Physical Laboratory. WhileRGWDis investigating sites of palaeo-channels,CGWBis carrying out drilling activities for water and soil samples.BARC,meanwhile, is estimating the age of water and soil samples by carbon-14 dating. This experiment is novel in that Rajasthan would be the first to ever use palaeo-channels for transporting water and storing it underground.Satellite images, supported by a four-year drilling exercise, which was guided by ancient literature, have established that the river Saraswati is not a myth. It was a huge river that died a premature death about 5,000 years ago, and is now buried 60 metres below the ground. A map of all the channels discovered so far leads one to conclude that it was probably 1,500 km long, three to fifteen kms wide, and about five metres deep. The river probably crisscrossed the present-day states of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan. S C Sharma, regional director,CGWB, says it continues to flow to the sea at a rate of 20 metres a year.The prospect of rediscovering the Saraswati was triggered off by digital photographs sent by the American satellite Landsat. To the surprise of many scientists, the photographs showed the presence of underground water in a definitive pattern in the Jaisalmer area. It was during this time that scientists started speaking of a large palaeo-channel in Rajasthan that could well belong to a big river.Remote sensing images of theISROand the Geological Survey of India (GSI) also found the existence of palaeo-channels of a mighty river in seven to eight places, all lying on the west of the Aravalli ranges. The images pointed to the possibility that the river started at the foothills of the Aravallis and shifted westward in stages. The river seems to enter Rajasthan in Ganganagar district, with its tail ends in Bikaner and Jaisalmer districts, a few kilometres from the Rann of Kutchh.Further, a geophysical survey undertaken by theRGWDin the Tanot and Longewala areas indicated the existence of coarse sediments in the depth range of 30 to 60 metres pointing to the possibility of the existence of a river in the region.However, until the project initiated by Jagmohan was inaugurated, scientists were hesitant to call it 'revival of the Saraswati'. Officially, they preferred to call it 'revival of palaeo-channels'. However, S Kalyan Raman, member of the new project committee, is clear that he is working on the Saraswati. "The Harappan civilisation existed on the banks of the Saraswati. Nearly 2,000 of the 2,600 Harappan sites that have been discovered are situated on the old palaeo-channels of Saraswati." K K Srivastava, divisional chief ofRGWD's research, design and development division, puts it differently, "It is a cooperative exercise involving both history and science."The first evidence of the ancient underground channels came in the 1930s, when scientists Haren and B C Gupta from theGSIspoke of the channels. They claimed that they might belong to the river Saraswati. Bimal Ghose, former scientist at Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, also made a reading based on the topography map of Rajasthan. He confirmed that the ancient channels were a dead river that could well be Saraswati. It may be mentioned here that ancient literature and texts and the geographical history of the region were constant bases of reference in these studies.The Rigveda, for example, mentions a mighty river that originates in the Himalaya and flows south-westwards. The Mahabharata speaks of a river that disappeared underground near the present-day town of Sirsa in Haryana. Besides, the geographical history of the now arid western Rajasthan points to the fact that the region used to be green and did not lack water resources. Barely 10,000 years ago, the whole region was host to a big river system, which attracted civilisations like the Mohenjodaro and Harappa.Archaeological findings also indicate that a major river originating primarily from the same source as the present Sutlej flowed through northern Rajasthan, Bahawalpur and Sindh. The course of the river was southeast of the Sutlej's present course. Some scholars working on ancient literature also suggest that the Saraswati flowed along the present course of Luni river in Rajasthan, and shifted westwards progressively. Baldeo Sahai, one of the members of the new research project says, "Latest research indicates that the Saraswati was a perennial river connected to the Bander Poonch glacier in the Himalayas."RGWDscientists say that the desertification of western Rajasthan started only 5,000-6,000 years ago. After the Ice Age, it is believed that the area had some massive glaciers, which flushed it with fresh water for thousands of years. Due to marine tectonic activity, the area from the Rann of Kutchh to Bikaner was submerged by seawater. This was the beginning of the desertification process.The tectonic activity is also said to be the reason behind Saraswati's delinking from its source of water. Consequently, it is believed, the river dried up and was buried under desertification sands and alluvium.In the early 1980s,RGWDscientists were amazed by the fact that fresh water was available in many places of Jaisalmer district, and some wells never dried up. This aroused considerable interest, for Jaisalmer's water is known to be saline. Investigations revealed that about 100 metres away from the site of the fresh water, the groundwater was saline. Some ofCGWB's observation stations for monitoring groundwater have fresh water in the depth range of 30-40 metres. "These stations are located in a linear pattern in the northeast-southeast direction, and never go dry," saysS C Sharma. "During drilling operations, alluvial sediments were found at a depth of 78-100 metres, pointing to the existence of a flow channel. It also points towards the existence of a fresh water source along the inferred palaeo-channel," says K K Srivastava.Extensive surveys showed that there was a big water channel 60-70 metres underground, and the water was moving very slowly towards the sea. Drilling work to trace these channels were started in Jaisalmer. The second stage of the operations is in the Bikaner-Kolait region, upward of Jaisalmer. There are palaeo-channels in all 10 districts of western Rajasthan, and these have been mapped to prepare the river's ancient course.The course of the river is yet to be traced completely, though. Besides, it is believed that, like any other major river, the Saraswati also changed its course frequently. This would explain the very large number of channels buried underground.Once the fact that the channels do exist was established,RGWDcommissioned the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad andBARC,Bombay to determine the age of the water and the soil. A team of scientists led by S M Rao ofBARC's isotope division studied the samples collected from different depths.BARC's dating suggests that the samples are as old as 20,000-40,000 years. The youngest sample dates back to 2,500 years. These findings place the samples in the 'marine transgression' age, when the desertification of Rajasthan started. The groundwater today contains more tritium, a radioactive material, due to atmospheric nuclear tests conducted in the 1960s and 1970s by theUSand the erstwhileUSSR.RGWD,in a proposal to theRGNMDW, outlined the utility of the project. This report suggests that once the channels are demarcated, and their course traced, they could contribute substantially towards solving the water crisis in arid western Rajasthan. "Transporting water through palaeo-channels would reduce the cost of water transportation drastically, because we do not need to build a canal. It would also reduce wastage due to evaporation," says S C Sharma. The channels could also double up as storage facility for surplus monsoon water.Officials say that the defence ministry has also shown an interest in the project, as it could mean adequate water supply to its soldiers stationed on the India-Pakistan border. Whether the large amount of data available with the army is utilised or not, the findings of the two projects on Saraswati are worth waiting for.

The Sarasvati River : Its Origins03/06/2013 13:07:44 Dr. Vijaya RajivaUnderstanding the origins of the Sarasvati River is part of the 'revolution' (a word used by Indic scholars) in Indic Studies, a revolution that is basically summarised by 3 events :1. The demise of the famed Aryan Invasion of India Theory.2. The deciphering of the Indus script.3. The discovery of the lost Sarasvati River.We shall focus on the third event in this article, although its connections with the first two topics are also there.The Sarasvati River was mentioned some 70 times in the Rig Veda and disappeared in the post Vedic period. It rapidly became thought of as a mystical heavenly river that joined the Yamuna and Ganga and became the site of the famed Triveni (at Prayag) and the site of worship for millions of Hindus during the Kumbh Mela every 12 years. More than two decades ago archaeologists and earth scientists discovered primarily through satellite photography,the paleochannels of a mighty river that originated in the Himalya and ran its full course to the sea, the Rann of Cutch in the Arabian sea.Indic scholars and scientists wrote treatises and books on the subject and organised conferences . The well known names associated with this project are B.Lal, K.S.Valdiya, S.Kalyanraman, Michael Danino , N.S. Rajaram etc., names that the general public are now familiar with(The list of scholars is long and the present writer asks to be excused for not mentioning all of them). These scholars/scientists were uniformly of the opinion that this discovery proved that the mighty Sarasvati of the Rig Veda existed and originated from the Himalaya.There were dissenting voices such as those of the astrophysicist Rajesh Kochar who placed the Sarasvati in Afghanistan and popularised the name the Gaghra Harakka rather than the Sarasvati. Kochar's arguments were somewhat convuluted and depended on his errroneous reading of the distinction between the Rig Vedic Sarasvati which he identified with the Helmand in Afghanistan and the smaller intermittent Gaghra Haraka in India. Marxist scholars, hostile to Hinduism, endorsed this effort and went so far as to say that in reality the Sarasvati was only a small river, a nulla so to speak(Marxist scholar Irfan Habib). Still others argued that the Sarasvati in India was a monsoon rain fed river, not a glacier fed river that rose from the Himalaya. This position has been advocated by Giosan and his colleagues in a recent article 'Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilisation' ( 2012). In fact, some of the terminology used by Dr. Giosan lends itself to a downgrading of the Sarasvati to a mere river drainage system. Irfan Habib, apart from being a Marxist was also not a Hindu. Hence, his casual use of the word 'nulla' to describe what millions of Hindus venerate as the Vedic Sarasvati.The Giosan position has been criticised by the eminent geologist K.S. Valdiya in his paper 'The river Saraswati was a Himalayan river' (Current Science, Jan.10, 2013).In this paper Dr. Valdiya gives a succint account of why the Sarasvati is a glacial fed river originating from the Himalaya. This is continuous with his earlier papers and books on the subject, with the additional feature of pinpointing the errors of those like Dr. Giosan who advocate the theory of the monsoon fed Sarasvati. His scientific position as an experienced geologist is that CLIMATE CHANGE ALONE cannot explain the complex interactions that take place in the formation and the continuance of a river system. There are many geological features.The political significance of this debate is far reaching and we shall examine that in a bit. But first let us survey the debate between Valdiya and Giosan. Both papers are easily accessible in pdf on the internet.Dr. Giosan and his colleagues (hereafter referred to Giosan et al) refer to the Sarasvati as the Gaghra Harakka. The 7 page paper is of a technical nature but written with sufficient clarity so that the general reader can understand the central point made by these researchers : the Sarasvati was a monsoon fed river, not a glacial fed river rising from the Himalaya.Between the Indus and Ganges basins, they said, only monsoon fed rivers were active during the Holocene (the period following the Pleistocene, the Ice Age, approximately 10, 000 years ago). Hence, as the monsoon weakened, monsoon rivers gradually dried up or became seasonal. Agricultural production became vulnerable and the Harappan settlements (of the Indus Valley Civilisation) were downsized and there was an increase in the moister monsoon regions of the upper Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.Between the Indus and the Ganges was the smaller drainage system, the Ghaggar-Hakra which was heavily populated during the Harappan times ( before 3,900 BCE). Many explanations have been given for the collapse of Harappan society : foreign invasions, social instabilities, decline in trade, environmental factors, aridification, hydrological changes such as the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra system etc. It must be noted that Giosan et al consistently refer to the Sarasvati as the Ghaggar-Hakra.Giosan et al point out that lack of information on fluvial dynamics (river water dynamics) ,high resolution topographic data and sedimentary chronologies have been lacking in almost a century of research on the Ghaggar-Hakra. To quote from their paper :

" Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data combined with field surveys and radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescensce dating offers us a way to analyse fluvial land forms and date deposits of the Indo Gangetic Plain. In this context, we reexamine the archeological site distribution to understand how climate controlled changes in river dynamics affected the Harappans" (p.1)A reading of the Giosan paper makes it obvious that their thesis on the monsoon fed Sarasvati is based SOLELY on climate change. Their methodology therefore also appears to be flawed.Dr. Valdiya begins with a brief general criticism and follows it up with a detailed 4 point criticism.As a general criticism of Giosan et al, he points out that if the Sarasvati were just a monsoon river fed by springs and seepages in its upper reaches during non monsoon months - as the Hindan river and the Gomati river in central Uttar Pradesh (UP) then it would be necessary to establish this assertion by GPR Survey. This would give a comprehensive study of groundwater elevation in relation to topographic laws combined with hydrogeological studies on the quantum of spring loading to the streams that make the river Saraswati . He observes:"There is no mention of this kind of study and no relevant data provided by Giosan et al in support of their thesis."That thesis is : there are no large scale incisions (cuttings made into the ground) in the upper reaches of the river and there is a slowing of sedimentation from gradual decrease of flood intensity.It should be pointed out to the reader that Hydrogeology is linked to the discipline of Hydrogeomorphology, which is simply the scientific name for the linkages between hydrogeological processes. The discipline is relatively new and studies the way water is delivered to and moves through a hillslope, river, or landscape. Geomorphology recognises that this process affects land forms and earth materials.Additionally, in his introductory general criticism of the Giosan paper, Dr. Valdiya points out how landscape can be obliterated by desert storms. These were particularly prevalent in the western part of the Indo Gangetic plain. The devastation caused by dust storms is described. These dust storms conceal land forms including water bodies where everything is concealed under heaps of sand that look like knolls or hillocks. Dr. Valdiya remarks :" Under such a circumstance how can one expect the pre 3,500 -year -old river formed land forms in the Sarasvati domain to be visible today on the surface to the geologists-geomorhologists and to the satellite-borne cameras, no matter how high their resolution is, in the region that fell under the sway of recurrent storms ?" (p.2).

After this general criticism Dr. Valdiya then examines in some detail the 4 aspects of the problem:1. the reality of the topgraphic situation2. the action of the wind3. the neotechtonic movements of the terrains through which the Saraswati flowed4. the great thickness of channel fillsThis section is detailed and has maps and illustrations. Although cogent and clear and easily understood by the non specialist reader, it is advisable for the reader to go directly to the scientific account to get its full import. The result of Dr.Valdiya's enquiry is that climate change (the action of monsoons) alone cannot explain the domain of the Sarasvati, as Giosan et al have argued.Some Comments on the Sarasvati Controversy.Dr. Giosan seems carried away by the rhetoric of his own partisanship. He accuses Dr. Valdiya of being influenced by emotional reasons. This is hardly the case as any objective reader of the eminent geologist's paper can attest to.The paper is clearly argued and is backed not only by his own expertise (acquired after a long and distinguished career as a geologist and attached to the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Scientific Research) but also an impressive bibliography culled from both Indian and Western scientists.Dr. Giosan refers not only to the 'mythical' Sarasvati river but has been seemingly influenced by the approaches of scientists such as Rajesh Kochar the astrophysicist who placed the Rig Vedic Sarasvati as the Helmand river in Afghanistan. With due respect to Dr. Kochar he is not a Vedic scholar and therefore not in a position to accurately interpret the Rig Vedic references to the river Sarasvati.Indeed his 1999-2000 book The Vedic Peoples, Their History and Geography may have influenced the writings of Marxist scholars who are virulently anti Hindu. In the case of Irfan Habib who called the Sarasvati a mere nulla the fact that he is not a Hindu only added to his lack of understanding of the role of the Rig Vedic Sarasvati.For the Hindu, whether the average pious Hindu or the scholar/scientist the Rig Vedic Sarasvati is central. It is the river on whose banks the Harappan civilisation flourished and as some journalists, notably Hartosh Singh Bal have pointed out ('The Truth about the river Saraswati' Open Magazine, Sept.1, 2013) the possibility exists of some linkage between the Harappan peoples and the Rig Vedic peoples. Indeed, mathematicians and scientists such as Dr. N.Rajaram have already pointed out that the Indo Europeans who inhabited the Indian subcontinent were prior to the Harappans who borrowed their knowledge of using bricks from the fire altar ceremonies of the Rig Vedic peoples. His remarkble articles on the Origins of the Indo Europeans are a 3 part series based on his forthcoming book Gene Times and the Birth of History (See Folks Magazine). Dr. Kalyanraman (Director of the Sarasvati Research Centre) has diligently worked out the rhebus method of interpreting the Indus script and his encyclopedic reference works Indus Script Cipher ( 2008) and his most recent book Indus Writing in Anceint Near East (2013) have added to the thesis that the Harappans came after the Rig Vedic peoples. Greek scholar N. Kazanas had been advocating this thesis through his scholarly study of the Vedic texts, especially the Rig Veda.In conclusion, there is no need for Hindus to feel apologetic for their attachment to the Vedic Sarasvati since it was no less a personage than the Sage Agastya who in his hymns in the Rig Veda spoke of Sarasvati as the 'light', as the giver of knowledge (I have written about this in the article 'Sarasvati and Resurgent Hinduism' in Haindava Keralam, May 8,2013 ).(Dr. Rajiva is a Political Philosopher who taught at a Canadian university)