king nero by dr. s.n. suresh

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KING NEROBy

Dr. S.N. Suresh



3

Contents

1 Early life

o 1.1 Family

o 1.2 Physical appearance

o 1.3 Rise to power

2 Emperor

o 2.1 Early rule

o 2.2 Matricide and consolidation of power

o 2.3 Administrative policies

o 2.4 Great Fire of Rome

o 2.5 Public performances

o 2.6 War and peace with Parthia

o 2.7 Other major power struggles and rebellions

o 2.8 The Revolt of Vindex and Galba and the death of Nero

o 2.9 After death

3 Historiography

4 Nero and religion

o 4.1 Jewish tradition

o 4.2 Christian tradition

5 Ancestry

6 See also

7 Notes

8 References

o 8.1 Primary sources

o 8.2 Secondary material



4

Early life

Roman imperial dynasties

Julio-Claudian dynasty

Chronology

Augustus 27 BC – 14 AD

Tiberius 14 AD – 37 AD

Caligula 37 AD – 41 AD

Claudius 41 AD – 54 AD

Nero 54 AD – 68 AD

Family

Gens Julia

Gens Claudia

Julio-Claudian family tree

Category:Julio-Claudian

Dynasty

Succession

Preceded by

Roman

Republic

Followed by

Year of the Four

Emperors

Family



5

Nero was born on 15 December, AD 37, in Antium, near Rome.[9][10]

He was

the only son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and second and third cousin

Agrippina the Younger, sister of emperor Caligula.

Lucius' father was the grandson of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and

Aemilia Lepida through their son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus

was a grandson to Mark Antony and Octavia Minor through their daughters

Antonia Major and Antonia Minor, by each parent. With Octavia, he was the

grandnephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero's father had been employed as a

praetor and was a member of Caligula's staff when the latter traveled to the

East.[11] Nero's father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat

who was charged by emperor Tiberius with treason, adultery, and incest.[11]

Tiberius died, allowing him to escape these charges.[11]

Nero's father died of

edema (or "dropsy") in 39 AD when Nero was three.[11]

Lucius' mother was Agrippina the Younger, who was great-granddaughter to

Caesar Augustus and his wife Scribonia through their daughter Julia the

Elder and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Agrippina's father,

Germanicus, was grandson to Augustus's wife, Livia, on one side and to

Mark Antony and Octavia on the other. Germanicus' mother Antonia Minor,

was a daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Octavia was Augustus'

second elder sister. Germanicus was also the adoptive son of Tiberius. A

number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of murdering her third

husband, emperor Claudius.[12]

Physical appearance



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In the book "The Lives of the Twelve Caesars" the Roman historian

Suetonius describes Nero as "about the average height, his body marked

with spots and malodorous, his hair light blond, his features regular rather

than attractive, his eyes blue and somewhat weak, his neck over thick, his

belly prominent, and his legs very slender."[13]

Rise to power

Nero was not expected ever to become emperor because his maternal uncle,

Caligula, had begun his reign at the age of 25 with ample time to produce his

own heir. Lucius' mother, Agrippina, lost favor with Caligula and was exiledin 39 after her husband's death.

[14]Caligula seized Lucius's inheritance and

sent him to be raised by his less wealthy aunt, Domitia Lepida, who was the

mother of Valeria Messalina, Claudius's third wife.[10]

Caligula, his wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla were

murdered on January 24, 41.[15]

These events led Claudius, Caligula's uncle,

to become emperor.[16] Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile.[10]

Coin issued under Claudius celebrating young Nero as the future emperor, c.

50



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Claudius had married twice before marrying Valeria Messalina.[17]

His

previous marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who

died at a young age.[18]

He had two children with Messalina - Claudia

Octavia (b. 40) and Britannicus (b. 41).[18]

Messalina was executed by

Claudius in the year 48.[17]

In 49, Claudius married a fourth time, to

Agrippina.[18]

To aid Claudius politically, Lucius was officially adopted in

50 and renamed Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus (see adoption in Rome).[19]

Nero was older than his stepbrother, Britannicus, and became heir to the

throne.[20]

Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of 14.[21] He was appointed

proconsul, entered and first addressed the Senate, made joint public

appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage.[21]

In 53, he married

his stepsister Claudia Octavia.[22]

Emperor

Early rule

Aureus of Nero and his mother, Agrippina, c. 54.

Claudius died in 54 and Nero was established as emperor. Though accounts

vary greatly, many ancient historians state Agrippina poisoned Claudius.[12]



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It is not known how much Nero knew or was involved in the death of

Claudius.[23]

Nero became emperor at 16, the youngest emperor up until that time.[24]

Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced

by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and the

Praetorian Prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, especially in the first year.[25]

Other tutors were less often mentioned, such as Alexander of Aegae.[26]

Very early in Nero's rule, problems arose from competition for influence

between Agrippina and Nero's two main advisers, Seneca and Burrus.

Seneca and Nero, after Eduardo Barrón, Cordoba, Spain.

In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met with an

Armenian envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous

scene.[27]

Nero's personal friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to

beware of his mother.[28]

Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage

to Octavia and entered into an affair with Claudia Acte, a former slave.[29]

In

55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that



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her son dismiss Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the

intervention of his mother in his personal affairs.[30]

With Agrippina's influence over her son severed, she reportedly began

pushing for Britannicus, Nero's stepbrother, to become emperor.[30]

Nearly

fifteen-year-old Britannicus, heir-designate prior to Nero's adoption, was

still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood.[30]

According to

Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being the blood

son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the state over

Nero.[30]

However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on 12 February,

55, the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set. [31] Nero

claimed that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient

historians all claim Britannicus' death came from Nero's poisoning him.[32]

After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia

and Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence.[33]

Matricide and consolidation of power

Coin of Nero and Poppaea Sabina

Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful, freeing himself of his

advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed Marcus

Antonius Pallas, an ally of Agrippina, from his position in the treasury.[30]



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Pallas, along with Burrus, was accused of conspiring against the emperor to

bring Faustus Sulla to the throne.[34]

Seneca was accused of having relations

with Agrippina and embezzlement.[35]

Seneca succeeded in having himself,

Pallas and Burrus acquitted.[35]

According to Cassius Dio, at this time,

Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from careful management

to mere moderation of Nero.[36]

In 58, Nero became romantically involved with Poppaea Sabina, the wife of

his friend and future emperor Otho.[37]

Reportedly because a marriage to

Poppaea and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with

Agrippina alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59. [38] A number

of modern historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry

Poppaea until 62.[39]

Additionally, according to Suetonius, Poppaea did not

divorce her husband until after Agrippina's death, making it unlikely that the

already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage.[40]

Some

modern historians theorize that Nero's execution of Agrippina was prompted

by her plotting to set Rubellius Plautus on the throne.[41]

According to

Suetonius, Nero tried to kill his mother through a planned shipwreck, which

took the life of her friend, Acerronia Polla, but when Agrippina survived, he

had her executed and framed it as a suicide.[42]

The incident is also recorded

by Tacitus.[43]



11

The Remorse of Nero after Killing his Mother , by John William Waterhouse,

1878.

In 62 Nero's adviser, Burrus, died.[44]

Additionally, Seneca was again faced

with embezzlement charges.[45]

Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire

from public affairs.[46]

Nero divorced and banished Octavia on grounds of

infertility, leaving him free to marry the pregnant Poppaea.[47]

After public

protests, Nero was forced to allow Octavia to return from exile,[47]

but she

was executed shortly after her return.[48]

Nero also was reported to have

kicked Poppaea to death in 65 before she could have his second child.[49]

However, modern historians, noting Suetonius, Tacitus and Cassius Dio's

possible bias against Nero and the likelihood that they did not have

eyewitness accounts of private events, postulate that Poppaea may have died

because of complications of miscarriage or childbirth.[50]

Accusations of treason being plotted against Nero and the Senate first

appeared in 62.[51]

The Senate ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to

death for speaking ill of Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of

Fabricius Veiento who slandered the Senate in a book.[52]

Tacitus writes that

the roots of the conspiracy led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso began in this year.

To consolidate power, Nero executed a number of people in 62 and 63

including his rivals Pallas, Rubellius Plautus and Faustus Sulla.[53]

According to Suetonius, Nero "showed neither discrimination nor

moderation in putting to death whomsoever he pleased" during this

period.[54]

Nero's consolidation of power also included a slow usurping of authority

from the Senate. In 54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers equivalent



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to those under Republican rule.[55]

By 65, senators complained that they had

no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy.[56]

Administrative policies

Coin showing Nero distributing charity to a citizen. c. 64-66

Over the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that pleased the lower

class. Nero was criticised as being obsessed with being popular.[57]

Nero began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy.[55]

In

this first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to enactments,

for which he was praised by the Senate.[58]

Nero was known for spending his

time visiting brothels and taverns during this period.[58]

In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was

consul four times between 55 and 60. During this period, some ancient

historians speak fairly well of Nero and contrast it with his later rule.[59]

Under Nero, restrictions were put on the amount of bail and fines.[60]

Also,

fees for lawyers were limited.[61]

There was a discussion in the Senate on the

misconduct of the freedmen class, and a strong demand was made that

patrons should have the right of revoking freedom.[62]

Nero supported the



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freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right.[63]

The Senate tried to

pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to all slaves within a

household. Nero vetoed the measure.[64]

After tax collectors were accused of

being too harsh to the poor, Nero transferred collection authority to lower

commissioners.[60]

Nero banned any magistrate or procurator from exhibiting

public entertainment for fear that the venue was being used as a method to

sway the populace.[65]

Additionally, there were many impeachments and

removals of government officials along with arrests for extortion and

corruption.[66]

When further complaints arose that the poor were being

overly taxed, Nero attempted to repeal all indirect taxes.[67]

The Senate

convinced him this action would bankrupt the public treasury.[67]

As a

compromise, taxes were cut from 4.5% to 2.5%.[68]

Additionally, secret

government tax records were ordered to become public.[68]

To lower the cost

of food imports, merchant ships were declared tax-exempt.[68]

Nero's abandoned Corinth canal

In imitation of the Greeks, Nero built a number of gymnasiums and

theatres.[69]

Enormous gladiatorial shows were also held.[70]

Nero also

established the quinquennial Neronia.[69][70]

The festival included games,

poetry and theater. Historians indicate that there was a belief that theatre led



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to immorality.[69]

Others considered that to have performers dressed in Greek

clothing was old fashioned.[71]

Some questioned the large public expenditure

on entertainment.[71]

In 64, Rome burned.[72]

Nero enacted a public relief effort[72]

as well as

significant reconstruction.[73]

A number of other major construction projects

occurred in Nero's late reign. Nero had the marshes of Ostia filled with

rubble from the fire. He erected the large Domus Aurea.[74]

In 67, Nero

attempted to have a canal dug at the Isthmus of Corinth.[75]

Ancient

historians state that these projects and others exacerbated the drain on the

State's budget.[76]

The economic policy of Nero is a point of debate among scholars. According

to ancient historians, Nero's construction projects were overly extravagant

and the large number of expenditures under Nero left Italy "thoroughly

exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined."[77][78]

Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation

and that it is likely that Nero's spending came in the form of public works

projects and charity intended to ease economic troubles.[79]

Great Fire of Rome

The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 July to 19 July, AD 64.

The fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in shops

selling flammable goods.[72]



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Sketch of Ancient graffiti portrait of Nero found at the Domus Tiberiana.

The extent of the fire is uncertain. According to Tacitus, who was nine at the

time of the fire, it spread quickly and burned for over five days.[80]

It

completely destroyed three of fourteen Roman districts and severely

damaged seven.[80]

The only other historian who lived through the period

and mentioned the fire is Pliny the Elder, who wrote about it in passing.[81]

Other historians who lived through the period (including Josephus, DioChrysostom, Plutarch, and Epictetus) make no mention of it.

It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire — whether accident or

arson.[72]

Suetonius and Cassius Dio favor Nero as the arsonist, so he could

build a palatial complex. It is also said that Nero played the fiddle while

Rome burned.[82]

Tacitus mentions that Christians confessed to the crime,

but it is not known whether these confessions were induced by torture.[83]

However, fires started accidentally were common in ancient Rome.[84]

In

fact, Rome suffered another large fire in 69[85]

and in 80.[86]



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It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium"

in stage costume while the city burned.[87]

Popular legend claims that Nero

played the fiddle at the time of the fire, an anachronism based merely on the

concept of the lyre, a stringed instrument associated with Nero and his

performances. (There were no fiddles in 1st-century Rome.) Tacitus's

account, however, has Nero in Antium at the time of the fire.[88]

Tacitus also

said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only

rumor.[88]

According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero returned to Rome

to organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds.[88] After the

fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and

arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation

among the survivors.[88]

In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban

development plan. Houses after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and

faced by porticos on wide roads.[73]

Nero also built a new palace complex

known as the Domus Aurea in an area cleared by the fire. This included lush

artificial landscapes and a 30 meter statue of himself, the Colossus of

Nero.[74]

The size of this complex is debated (from 100 to 300 acres).[89][90][91]

To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were imposed on

the provinces of the empire.[92]

According to Tacitus, the population searched for a scapegoat and rumors

held Nero responsible.[83] To deflect blame, Nero targeted Christians. He

ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs, while others were crucified and

burned.[83]

Tacitus described the event:



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“ Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and

inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their

abominations, called Christians [or Chrestians[93]

] by the populace.

Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme

penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our

procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition,

thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the

first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous

and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and

become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who

pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude

was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of

hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their

deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and

perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames

and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had

expired.[83]

”

Public performances

Nero coin, c. 66. Ara Pacis on the reverse.



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Nero enjoyed driving a one-horse chariot, singing to the lyre and poetry.[94]

He even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers

throughout the empire.[95]

At first, Nero only performed for a private

audience.[96]

In 64, Nero began singing in public in Neapolis in order to improve his

popularity.[96]

He also sang at the second quinquennial Neronia in 65.[97]

It

was said that Nero craved the attention,[98]

but historians also write that Nero

was encouraged to sing and perform in public by the Senate, his inner circle

and the people.[99]

Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform,

calling it shameful.[100]

Nero was convinced to participate in the Olympic Games of 67 in order to

improve relations with Greece and display Roman dominance.[101]

As a

competitor, Nero raced a ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being

thrown from it.[102]

He also performed as an actor and a singer.[103]

Though

Nero faltered in his racing (in one case, dropping out entirely before the end)

and acting competitions,[102]

he won these crowns nevertheless and paraded

them when he returned to Rome.[102]

The victories are attributed to Nero

bribing the judges and his status as emperor.[104]

War and peace with Parthia

For more details on this topic, see Roman-Parthian War of 58–63.

Shortly after Nero's accession to the throne in 55, the Roman vassal

kingdom of Armenia overthrew their prince Rhadamistus and he was

replaced with the Parthian prince Tiridates.[105]

This was seen as a Parthian

invasion of Roman territory.[105]

There was concern in Rome over how the



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young emperor would handle the situation.[106]

Nero reacted by immediately

sending the military to the region under the command of Gnaeus Domitius

Corbulo.[107]

The Parthians temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to

Rome.[108]

The peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian king

Vologases I refused to remove his brother Tiridates from Armenia.[109]

The

Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom.[37]

Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian army that

same year.[110]

Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of

Armenia.[110]

Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory.[111]

Tigranes, a

Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, was installed by Nero as the new ruler

of Armenia.[112]

Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward.[112]

The Parthian Empire c. 60. Nero's peace deal with Parthia was a political

victory at home and made him beloved in the east.

In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian province of Adiabene.[113] Again, Rome

and Parthia were at war and this continued until 63. Parthia began building

up for a strike against the Roman province of Syria.[114]

Corbulo tried to

convince Nero to continue the war, but Nero opted for a peace deal



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instead.[115]

There was anxiety in Rome about eastern grain supplies and a

budget deficit.[116]

The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but

was crowned in Rome by emperor Nero.[117]

In the future, the king of

Armenia was to be a Parthian prince, but his appointment required approval

from the Romans. Tiridates was forced to come to Rome and partake in

ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance.[72][118]

This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero politically.[119]

Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with theParthians as well.

[119]The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years

until emperor Trajan of Rome invaded Armenia in 114.

Other major power struggles and rebellions

Plaster bust of Nero, Pushkin Museum, Moscow.

The war with Parthia was not Nero's only major war but he was both

criticized and praised for an aversion to battle.[120]

Like many emperors,

Nero faced a number of rebellions and power struggles within the empire.

British Revolt of 60–61 (Boudica's Uprising)

Further information: Boudicca#Boudica.27s_uprising



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In 60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of Britannia.[121]

While the

governor Gaius Suetonius Paullinus and his troops were busy capturing the

island of Mona (Anglesey) from the druids, the tribes of the south-east

staged a revolt led by queen Boudica of the Iceni.[122]

Boudica and her troops

destroyed three cities before the army of Paullinus was able to return, be

reinforced and put down the rebellion in 61.[123]

Fearing Paullinus himself

would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced him with the more passive

Publius Petronius Turpilianus.[124]

The Pisonian Conspiracy of 65

Main article: Pisonian conspiracy

In 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy

against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune

and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard.[125]

According to Tacitus, many

conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the

Republic.[126]

The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported

it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditos.[127]

As a result, the conspiracy failed and

its members were executed including Lucan, the poet.[128]

Nero's previous

advisor, Seneca was ordered to commit suicide after admitting he discussed

the plot with the conspirators.[129]

The First Jewish War of 66–70

In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish

religious tension.[130]

In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to restore order.[131]

This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death.[132]

This revolt



22

is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the

Second Temple of Jerusalem.[133]

The Revolt of Vindex and Galba and the death of Nero

Marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the Palatine.

In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis,rebelled against Nero's tax policies.

[134][135]Lucius Verginius Rufus, the

governor of Germania Superior, was ordered to put down Vindex's

rebellion.[136]

In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province,

Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania

Tarraconensis, to join the rebellion and further, to declare himself emperor

in opposition to Nero.[137]

At the Battle of Vesontio in May 68, Verginius'

forces easily defeated those of Vindex and the latter committed suicide.[136]

However after putting down this one rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to

proclaim their own commander as emperor. Verginius refused to act against



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Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germany and the continued

opposition of Galba in Spain did not bode well for Nero.

While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba

increased despite his being officially declared a public enemy. The prefect of

the Praetorian Guard, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned his

allegiance to the emperor and came out in support for Galba.

In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of Ostia

and from there to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces.

However he abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused toobey his commands, responding with a line from Vergil's Aeneid : "Is it so

dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to

Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or to appeal to the

people and beg them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not

soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of

Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in

Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to

pieces before he could reach the Forum.[138]

Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping,

he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching

messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, none replied.

Upon going to their chambers personally, all were abandoned. Upon callingfor a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one

appeared. He cried "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw

himself into the Tiber.[138]



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Returning again, Nero sought for some place where he could hide and

collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman offered his villa, located 4 miles

outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal servants reached

the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him. As it was being

prepared, he said again and again "What an artist dies in me!".[139]

At this

time a courier arrived with a report that the Senate had declared Nero a

public enemy and that it was their intention to execute him by beating him to

death. At this news Nero prepared himself for suicide. Losing his nerve, he

first begged for one of his companions to set an example by first killing

himself. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the

end. After quoting a line from Homer's Iliad ("Hark, now strikes on my ear

the trampling of swift-footed coursers!") Nero drove a dagger into his throat.

In this he was aided by his private secretary, Epaphroditos. When one of the

horsemen entered, upon his seeing Nero all but dead he attempted to staunch

the bleeding. With the words "Too late! This is fidelity!", Nero died on 9

June 68.[140]

This was the anniversary of the death of Octavia. Nero was

buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the

Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome.[140]

With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in

the Year of the Four Emperors.[85]

After death

See also: Nero Redivivus Legend and Pseudo-Nero

According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the

death of Nero.[141][142]

Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated



25

political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by

Senators, nobility and the upper class.[143]

The lower-class, slaves,

frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by

the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the

news.[143]

Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they

had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to overthrow him.[144]

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus II and Apollonius of Tyana, mention

that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a

wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character"[145]

and that he "held

our liberties in his hand and respected them."[146]

Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off

individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the

end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal

to their nostalgia."[147]

Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin

regards as "outburst of private zeal".[148]

Many portraits of Nero were

reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty

such images survive.[149]

This reworking of images is often explained as part

of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned

posthumously (see damnatio memoriae).[149]

Champlin, however, doubts that

the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to createimages of Nero long after his death.

[150]



26

Apotheosis of Nero, c. after 68. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divinestatus after his death.

The civil war during the Year of the Four Emperors was described by

ancient historians as a troubling period.[85]

According to Tacitus, this

instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the

perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him

could.[143]

Galba began his short reign with the execution of many allies of

Nero and possible future enemies.[151]

One notable enemy included

Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of emperor Caligula.[152]

Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because

he had been a friend of Nero's and resembled him somewhat in

temperament.[153]

It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero

himself.[154] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to

Nero.[154]

Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large

funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.[155]



27

After Nero's suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the

eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.[156]

This

belief came to be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend.

The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death.

Augustine of Hippo wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422[157]

At least three Nero imposters emerged leading rebellions. The first, who

sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the

dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius.[158]

After

persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.

[158]

Sometime during the reign of Titus (79-81) there was another impostor who

appeared in Asia and also sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked

like Nero but he, too, was killed.[159]

Twenty years after Nero's death, during

the reign of Domitian, there was a third pretender. Supported by the

Parthians, they hardly could be persuaded to give him up[160]

and the matter

almost came to war.[85]

Historiography

The history of Nero’s reign is problematic in that no historical sources

survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories at one time

did exist and were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical

or praising of Nero.[161]

The original sources were also said to contradict on a

number of events.[162] Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis

of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next

generations of historians.[163]

A few of the contemporary historians are

known by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Elder all



28

wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost.[164]

There were also

pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or on what deeds Nero

was praised.[165]

The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius and

Cassius Dio, who were all of the Patrician class. Tacitus and Suetonius

wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius

Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero’s death. These sources

contradict on a number of events in Nero’s life including the death of

Claudius, the death of Agrippina and the Roman fire of 64, but they are

consistent in their condemnation of Nero.

A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying perspective on

Nero. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some sources,

though, portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the

Roman people, especially in the east.[citation needed ]

Cassius Dio

Cassius Dio (c. 155- 229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman

senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a

senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of

Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, as also

proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.

Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only

fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and

altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th century monk.



29

Dio Chrysostom

Dio Chrysostom (c. 40– 120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the

Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to

rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced

imposters when they appeared:

“ Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as

the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to prevent

his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now

everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great majority do

believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died not

once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that

he was still alive.[166]

”

Epictetus

Epictetus (c. 55- 135) was the slave to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos. He makes

a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes

no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry

and unhappy man.

Josephus



30

The historian Josephus (c. 37-100) accused other historians of slandering

Nero.

The historian Josephus (c. 37- 100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the

first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:

“ But I omit any further discourse about these affairs; for there have

been a great many who have composed the history of Nero; some of

which have departed from the truth of facts out of favor, as having

received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred to him, and

the great ill-will which they bare him, have so impudently raved

against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned.

Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have

not in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts

that were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no

way incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long time after ”



31

them.[167]

Lucan

Though more of a poet than historian, Lucanus (c. 39- 65) has one of the

kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under

Nero in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved

in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed.[168]

Philostratus

Philostratus II "the Athenian" (c. 172- 250) spoke of Nero in the Life of

Apollonius Tyana (Books 4–5). Though he has a generally a bad or dim

view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East.

Pliny the Elder

The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c. 24- 79) did not survive. Still, there

are several references to Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind."

[169]

Plutarch

Plutarch (c. 46- 127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of

Galba and the Life of Otho. Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that

replace him are not described as better.

Seneca the Younger

It is not surprising that Seneca (c. 4 BC- 65), Nero's teacher and advisor,

writes very well of Nero.[170]



32

Suetonius

Main article: Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Suetonius (c. 69- 130) was a member of the equestrian order, and he was the

head of the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this

position, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating

the anecdotal and sensational aspects.

Tacitus

Main article: Annals (Tacitus)

The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56- 117) is the most detailed and comprehensive

history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year 66.

Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally

unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced:

“ The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero, while they were

in power, were falsified through terror, and after their death were

written under the irritation of a recent hatred.[171]

”

Tacitus was the son of a procurator, who married into the elite family of

Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by

Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realizing that this bias

may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true.[172]

At the end of 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem

and Caesarea. According to a Jewish tradition in the Talmud (tractate Gitin

56a-b), Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. All the

arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse



33

he had learned that day. The child responded "I will lay my vengeance upon

Edom by the hand of my people Israel" (Ez. 25,14). Nero became terrified,

believing that God wanted the Temple in Jerusalem to be destroyed, but

would punish the one to carry it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His

House and to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to

Judaism to avoid such retribution. Vespasian was then dispatched to put

down the rebellion. The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess, a

prominent supporter of the Bar Kokhba rebellion against Roman rule, was a

descendant of Nero. Roman sources nowhere report Nero's alleged

conversion to Judaism, a religion considered by the Romans as extremely

barbaric and immoral.[173]

It seems unlikely that such sources - almost

universally hostile towards the emperor - would have passed up the

opportunity to denigrate Nero even further by mentioning this alleged

conversion. Neither is there any record of Nero having any offspring who

survived infancy: his only recorded child, Claudia Augusta, died aged 4

months. The legend recorded in the Talmud thus cannot be relied upon as a

historical source for facts on Nero's life.

Christian tradition



34

A Christian Dirce, by Henryk Siemiradzki. A Christian woman is martyred

in this re-enactment of the myth of Dirce.

Christian tradition often holds Nero as the first persecutor of Christians and

as the killer of Apostles Peter and Paul. Fourth century theologians recorded

their belief that Nero would return, in some manner, as "the Anti-Christ."

First Persecutor

The non-Christian historian Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturing and

executing Christians after the fire of 64.[83]

Suetonius also mentions Nero

punishing Christians, though he does so as a praise and does not connect it

with the fire.[174]

The Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155- 230) was the first to call Nero the

first persecutor of Christians. He wrote "Examine your records. There you

will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine".[175]

Lactantius

(c. 240- 320) also said Nero "first persecuted the servants of God".[176]

as

does Sulpicius Severus.[177]

However, Suetonius gives that "since the Jews

constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [the emperor

Claudius] expelled them from Rome" (" Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue

tumultuantis Roma expulit ").[178]

These expelled "Jews" may have been early

Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit,

calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at

the time, "Jews."[179]

Killer of Peter and Paul



35

The first text to suggest that Nero killed an apostle is the apocryphal

Ascension of Isaiah, a Christian writing from the 2nd century. It says the

slayer of his mother, who himself this king, will persecute the plant which

the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be

delivered into his hands.[180]

The Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 275- 339) was the first to write that

Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero.[181]

He states that

Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give

any specific orders. Several other accounts have Paul surviving his two years

in Rome and traveling to Hispania.[182]

Peter is first said to have been crucified upside-down in Rome during Nero's

reign (but not by Nero) in the apocryphal Acts of Peter (c. 200).[183]

The

account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not

to persecute any more Christians.

By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter

and Paul.[184]

The Antichrist

Main articles: The Beast (Bible) and Number of the Beast

The Ascension of Isaiah is the first text to suggest that Nero was the

Antichrist. It claims a lawless king, the slayer of his mother,...will come and

there will come with him all the powers of this world, and they will hearken

unto him in all that he desires.[180]



The Sibylline Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in the 2nd century, speaks of

Nero returning and bringing destruction.[185]

Within Christian communities,

these writings, along with others,[186]

fueled the belief that Nero would return

as the Antichrist. In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero suddenly disappeared,

and even the burial-place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen.

This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that,

having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to

him they apply the Sibylline verses.[176]

In 422, Augustine of Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he

believed Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Though he rejects the

theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed that Nero was the

Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote, so that in saying,

"For the mystery of iniquity doth already work,"[187]

he alluded to Nero,

whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist.[157]

The concept of Nero as the Antichrist is often a central belief of Preterist

eschatology.

king nero by dr. s.n. suresh

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