Course: Foundations of Education (6500)

Semester: Spring, 2019

Level: M.A/M.Ed. Total Marks: 100

Pass Marks: 40

ASSIGNMENT No.1

Q.1 What is Education and how can it develop the Man? What should be the aims of

education in global perspective? (20)

تعلیم کیا ہے اور کس طرح انسان کو ترقی دے سکتی ہے؟ عالمی نقطہ نظر میں تعلیم کا مقصد کیا ہونا چاہئے؟ ۔ 1س

ANS: Introduction

As previously stated in the section related to desired student outcomes (Huitt, 1997a), in my opinion there are three major issues in the education of young people today. The first is the development of a vision for one's life that

includes the discovery and/or defining of one's life mission and desired lifestyle. The second is the development of

one's character, dealing with concerns of direction and quality of life. The third deals with the development of

competence that deals with concerns of how well one is able to do something. These three issues are addressed

specifically in the SCANS report (Whetzel, 1992) and in my critique of that report (Huitt, 1997). Similarly, Walsh

(1990) defines education as the process that prepares young people for their social inheritance and advocates three

dimensions of education--development of knowledge, training of mental abilities, and development of character.

The issues of vision and competence permeates other sections of these materials (e.g., information

processing, abstract thinking, critical thinking, conation/volition.) The focus of this section will be the issue of

character.

The following two definitions provide examples of a normative view of character:

1. "engaging in morally relevant conduct or words, or refraining from certain conduct or words" (Wynne &

Walberg, 1984); 2. "a complex set of relatively persistent qualities of the individual person, and generally has a positive

connotation when used in discussions of moral education" (Pritchard, 1988).

In general, character, good or bad, is considered to be observable in one's conduct (Walberg & Wynne, 1989). Thus,

character is different from values in that values are orientations or dispositions whereas character involves action or

activation of knowledge and values. From this perspective, values are seen as one of the foundations for character.

In the context of the model of human behavior presented at this site (Huitt, 1996), values includes

both cognitive and affective components, but not necessarily conative or behavioral components. Character includes

all four components.

Character Education in the United States

Scholarly debate on moral development and character formation extends at least as far back as

Aristotle's Nichomacean Ethics and Socrates' Meno and continues through to modern times (Nucci, 1989). In the last

several hundred years, character education has been seen as a primary function of educational institutions. For

example, John Locke, 17th century English philosopher, advocated education as education for character

development. This theme was continued in the 19th century by English philosophers John Stuart Mill (e.g.,

"development of character is a solution to social problems and a worthy educational ideal," Miller & Kim, 1988) and

Herbert Spencer (e.g., "education has for its object the formation of character," Purpel & Ryan, 1976). American

education has had a focus on character development from its inception. The American philosopher, John Dewey, an

influential philosopher and educator of the early 20th century, saw moral education as central to the school's mission

(Dewey, 1934).

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However, since the 1930's American education has increasingly turned away from character education as a primary

focus (Power, Higgens & Kohlberg, 1989). This is in spite of the fact that both educators and the public believe

character education to be an important aspect of schooling. Spears' (1973) survey of members of Phi Delta Kappa

(an education honorary society) on goals of education showed the following ranking of the goals of public schools:

1. develop skills in reading, writing, speaking, and listening; 2. develop pride in work and feeling of self-worth; and 3. develop good character and self-respect.

In terms of defining good character, educators stated that this should include developing:

1. moral responsibility and sound ethical and moral behavior; 2. capacity for discipline; 3. a moral and ethical sense of the values, goals, and processes of a free society; 4. standards of personal character and ideas.

In two more recent Gallup (1975, 1980) surveys of public attitudes toward public schools, 79% of respondents

indicated they favor "instruction in schools that would deal with morals and moral behavior."

Since the 1960's teacher education has downplayed the teacher's role as a transmitter of social and personal values

and emphasized other areas such teaching techniques, strategies, models, and skills (e.g., Nucci, 1986a). More and more the vision of a good teacher is as the good technician, the skilled craftsman, who has acquired those behavioral

skills and strategies that the "effective teacher" research claims are related to achievement. However, the fact that

"effective" is defined as the students' scores on standardized tests of basic skills, but without reference to higher-

order intellectual processes or concern about the students' morals, is of concern to many parents and educators.

Educational psychology, rather than philosophy and religion, has become the basis of teacher training (Ryan, 1989).

In most cases, educational psychology focuses on the individual, separated from the social context. Additionally,

modern education has been heavily influenced by the behavioral approach, which has proved adept at developing

instructional methods that impact achievement as measured by standardized tests. In the opinion of most researchers

in the area of character and moral development (e.g., Lickona, 1991; Nucci, 1989), additional emphasis must be

placed on the philosophical "why" of education in addition to the technical "how."

The two educational goals most desired by both the public and educators--academic competence and character

development--are not mutually exclusive, but complementary (Wynne & Walberg, 1985). Competence allows

character to be manifested in highest forms and vice versa. For example, Stallings (1978) found a positive impact of

attempts to improve student achievement on independence, task persistence, cooperation, and question-asking.

Etzioni (1984) and Ginsburg and Hanson (1986) reported that students who were self-disciplined or more religious,

hard working, or valued learning scored higher on achievement tests. Kagan (1981) and Wynne and Walberg (1985) argue that good character ought to be the more primary focus as it is a goal in reach of more children than is high

academic achievement and can result in less alienation from the school.

The relative lack of interest in character education in the last three decades has begun to change (Lickona, 1990). In 1987, the National School Boards Association proposed to the United States Department of Education a project,

"Building Character in the Public Schools," designed to enhance character development in the schools through

involvement of more than 15,000 local school boards in this country. The project had two overall goals:

1. to heighten national awareness of the importance of character development programs in local public

schools to the continued success and stability of American society; and 2. to encourage the establishment and improvement of character development programs in public elementary

and secondary schools.

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Impacting Moral and Character Development

Campbell and Bond (1982) state there are four major questions to be addressed when focusing on character

development:

1. what is good character; 2. what causes or prevents it; 3. how can it be measured so that efforts at improvement can have corrective feedback;and 4. how can it best be developed?

As previously discussed, good character is defined in terms of one's actions. Character development traditionally has

focused on those traits or values appropriate for the industrial age such as obedience to authority, work ethic,

working in group under supervision, etc. However, as discussed in the SCANS report (1991) and Huitt's (1997) critique, modern education must promote character based on values appropriate for the information age:

truthfulness, honesty, integrity, individual responsibility, humility, wisdom, justice, steadfastness, dependability, etc.

In terms of what influences character development, Campbell and Bond (1982) propose the following as major

factors in the moral development and behavior of youth in contemporary America:

1. heredity 2. early childhood experience 3. modeling by important adults and older youth 4. peer influence 5. the general physical and social environment 6. the communications media 7. what is taught in the schools and other institutions 8. specific situations and roles that elicit corresponding behavior.

These sources of influence are listed in approximate order of least tractable to most tractable in order to suggest why

we often seek solutions to social problems through schools. It is important to realize that while schools do and

should play a role in the development of character, families, communities, and society in general also have an

important influence (Huitt, 1999).

The measurement of character has proven difficult since character, by definition, involves behavior, but character is

often defined in terms of traits (i.e., honesty, integrity, etc.). Some possible measures suggested by Campbell and

Bond (1982) are:

1. student discipline; 2. student suicide rates; 3. crimes: assault, burglary, homicides; 4. pregnancy rates of teenage girls; and 5. prosocial activities.

Bennett (1993) proposed a list of cultural indicators that he believes could be used as measures of the character of

our society. In addition, he cited a number of social trends that he believes have impacted these

indicators. The following table provides an overview of how these have changed from 1960 to 1990.

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Even a cursory glance would indicate that our society is changing in ways that produce discomfort for most of us.

While Gross Domestic Product (GDP--the amount of goods and services produced in this country) has risen

dramatically relative to the growth in population, with a corresponding increase in spending on social programs, data

on indicators that might be used as a measure of the nation's character show movement in the opposite direction. In

my opinion, this type of analysis is quite beneficial because it is at a level that includes the influence of all of the major social institutions that influence character development in our young people, not just schools. However,

schools do have an important influence and we should use that influence judiciously.

There are a variety of alternatives to dealing with moral and character education in the schools (Watkins, 1976).

First, we can ignore it completely which assumes the issue is outside the bounds of proper curriculum. The interest by professional organizations and the public suggests that this view is inappropriate. Second, we can take a "values

neutral" stance and provide opportunities for students to clarify and defend their own values without making

recommendations or advocating a particular viewpoint. This is the position taken by the advocates of the values

clarification movement (e.g., Kirschenbaum & Simon, 1973; Raths, Harmin & Simon, 1978; Simon, Howe &

Kirschenbaum, 1972) and assumes that in important ways no values or character traits are more valid than others.

However, to the extent that certain values or character traits are more likely to lead to socially desired outcomes, it

would seem inappropriate to not identify these as "better" values. This is not to say that the techniques used in

values clarification have no merit, but that when educators and the public have developed a consensus about the

worth of certain values, it seems entirely appropriate to teach those to students.

A third approach is to teach students a specific process to follow when making decisions and putting these into

action. This is the approach of the analysis view used in values education (e.g., Ennis, 1969; Metcalf, 1971) and

assumes moral and character decisions are made rationally. Another cognitively-oriented approach is to engage

students in discussions of relevant moral issues with the expectation that students who hear their peers discuss the

issue from a higher level will gravitate to that position. This position is expounded in the moral development

approach of Lawrence Kohlberg (e.g. Kohlberg, 1976, 1984) whose theory was based on the cognitive development theory of Jean Piaget (1932, 1962; see Hersh, Paolitto & Reimer, 1977). While the techniques used in both of these

approaches have been shown to be effective in changing thinking, there is scant evidence to support the belief that

changing thinking will automatically lead to a change in behavior. And it is impact on behavior that distinguishes

values education from character education.

A fifth approach is to teach students a given set of values and accompanying appropriate actions. This is the position

taken by the inculcation approach to values clarification (e.g., Georgia Department of Education, 1997; Wynne,

1989; Wynne & Ryan, 1992; Wynne & Walberg, 1984). This approach assumes a set of absolute values agreed upon

by society that are unchanging and that be applied equally appropriately in all situations. Huitt's (1995) analysis of

the rapid change in society over the last 100 years, accelerating at an even more rapid pace today, suggests this

approach alone will not lead to desired outcomes in character development.

A final approach is to use the inculcation, values education, analysis, and moral development approaches described

above when and where appropriate and then to have students put their thoughts and feelings into action in a variety

of social actions as suggested in the action learning (e.g., Cottom, 1996; Gauld, 1993; Solomon et al., 1992) or

service learning (e.g., Champion, 1999) approaches. This combination of approaches is much more likely to impact

the two important aspects of character not included in values education--volition and action.

From the perspective of a systems view, which is most compatible with the action learning and service learning

approaches to character education, we need to define character development in terms of the three components

of mind: (cognition, affect, volition) and the component of behavior as depicted in the systems model of human

behavior (Huitt, 1996). The cognitive component of character consists of both a knowledge base of right and wrong

as well as the rational and creative processes necessary to work with that knowledge base to make sound moral

decisions. There is a related value system that defines what the individual holds in high esteem or to which he or she

is attached. These are the criteria that students use to make moral or ethical judgments. Students learn to value what

is in their knowledge base; they will also more deeply esteem what they critically and creatively think about. These two components influence what students are willing to commit to, what they are willing to set goals for, what they

are willing to plan for and put energy towards accomplishing. As students make these commitments and plans, it

adds to their knowledge base and strengthens their thinking skills and values. These three components then influence

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the final component, overt behavior. This behavior has two aspects: personal virtues such as being courageous and

self-disciplined and social virtues such as being compassionate, courteous, and trustworthy. As students reflect on

their behavior, it adds to the knowledge base, strengthens their thinking skills, and impacts their values. Of course,

behavior can also be directly influenced through the application of consequences as described by operant

conditioning theory (Huitt & Hummel, 1997a) and through observation and modeling as described by social learning theory (Huitt & Hummel, 1997b). The basic principle of this model is that much of the knowledge and values that

students hold are implicit and have been obtained though observation, modeling, and the application of

consequences. As important as it is to impact overt moral behavior, it is equally important to help students make

explicit one's own knowledge base, value system, and the process of committing and planning so as to make that

behavior more intentional. This multi-faceted view of character development is more similar to Bandura’s

(1989) social cognition theory with its emphasis on reciprocal determinism than it is to a behavioral, cognitive,

or humanistic view, each of which is more likely to focus on one component to the detriment of the others.

In assisting students to develop their morals and character, we should acknowledge that these components come into play within a rapidly changing context and therefore, we cannot teach our students all the specific knowledge,

values, or behaviors that will lead to success in all aspects of their lives. We must therefore acknowledge that some

values are relative and teach students to develop their own views accordingly. At the same time, we must

acknowledge that there are some absolutes with respect to morality and character as accepted by commonalties

among members of specific communities, major world religions, and moral philosophers. We, therefore, have an

obligation to teach these in the family, in our religious organizations, and to support this effort in our communities.

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Moral and character development is integral to the development of self (Ashton & Huitt, 1980), and is as much the

responsibility of early caregivers as it is of later educators. Nucci (1989) showed that "children's moral

understandings were independent of specific religious concepts" and that both secular and religious children focus

"on the same set of fundamental interpersonal issues: those pertaining to justice and compassion" (p. 195). In sum,

as parents, educators, affiliates of religious organizations, and community members, we have an obligation to provide young people with training appropriate to their age level that would assist them in holding to the absolutes

that are common across philosophies and the scriptures of the major religious traditions, while at the same time

helping them clarify and defend their own acquired values. As a beginning effort in this identifying important moral

character attributes that can be addressed by educators, I have developed a "Survey of Desired Values, Virtues, and

Attributes". A preliminary study shows considerable overlap in beliefs among preservice and practicing educators

(Huitt, 2003).

Any framework for impacting moral and character development is arbitrary unless it is based on some philosophical

foundation. Since no current approach to moral education is consistent with all philosophies and meta-ethical

theories, educators must first decide these and then develop curriculum (Watkins, 1976). Unfortunately, a series of

studies by Hartshorne and colleagues (1928, 1929, 1930) showed that particular techniques of character training,

such as in-class discussion, or even practicing helping activities, bore little or no significant relationship to pupil's

later patterns of moral conduct. However, a review of research by Wynne (1989) reports that the quality of

relationships among faculty (and between the faculty and adults in authority) is a major factor in the development of

student character. An atmosphere of adult harmony is vitally important. According to Wynne, schools effectively

assisting pupil character development are:

1. directed by adults who exercise their authority toward faculty and students in a firm, sensitive, and

imaginative manner, and who are committed to both academics and pupil character development; 2. staffed by dedicated faculty who make vigorous demands on pupils and each other; 3. structured so that pupils are surrounded by a variety of opportunities for them to practice helping

(prosocial) conduct; 4. managed to provide pupils--both individually and collectively--with many forms of recognition for good

conduct; 5. oriented toward maintaining systems of symbols, slogans, ceremonies, and songs that heighten pupils'

collective identities; 6. dedicated to maintaining pupil discipline, via clear, widely disseminated discipline codes that are

vigorously enforced and backed up with vital consequences; 7. committed to academic instruction and assigned pupils significant homework and otherwise stressed

appropriate academic rigor; 8. sensitive to the need to develop collective pupil loyalties to particular classes, clubs, athletic groups, and

other subentities in the school; 9. sympathetic to the values of the external adult society, and perceive it as largely supportive and concerned

with the problems of the young; 10. always able to use more money to improve their programs, but rarely regard lack of money as an excuse for

serious program deficiencies; 11. open to enlisting the help, counsel, and support of parents and other external adults, but willing to propose

important constructive changes in the face of (sometimes) ill-informed parent resistance; 12. disposed to define "good character" in relatively immediate and traditional terms.

Character education Character education is an umbrella term loosely used to describe the teaching of children in a manner that will help them

develop variously as moral, civic, good, mannered, behaved, non-bullying, healthy, critical, successful, traditional, compliant or socially acceptable beings. Concepts that now and in the past have fallen under this term include social and emotional learning, moral reasoning and cognitive development, life skills education, health educat ion, violence prevention, critical

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thinking, ethical reasoning, and conflict resolution and mediation. [1] Many of these are now considered failed programs, i.e. "religious education", "moral education", "values clarification". [2]

Today, there are dozens of character education programs in, and vying for adoption by, schools and businesses. [3] Some are commercial, some non-profit and many are uniquely devised by states, districts and schools, themselves. A common

approach of these programs is to provide a list of principles, pillars, values or virtues, which are memorized or around which themed activities are planned.[4] It is commonly claimed that the values included in any particular list are universally recognized. However, there is no agreement among the competing programs on core values (e.g., honesty, stewardship, kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, justice, equality, and respect) or even how many to list. There is also no common or standard means for assessing, implementing or evaluating programs.

In simple words, character education is education that nurtures an d promotes the ethical, intellectual, social and

emotional development of individuals. It is a continuous learning process that enables young people and adults to

become moral, caring, critical, responsible individuals.

Character education represents a relationship between knowledge, values and skills necessary for success in life. By

knowledge, we refer to two kinds of knowledge: a) general knowledge; that is, knowledge that encompasses a wide

subject range and b) specialised knowledge obtained via extensive reading and training in a particular area or f ield of

studies. Values, on the other hand, are the beliefs and moral codes of a person or a society about what is good and

bad which tend to influence attitudes and behaviours . Lastly, skills – or better life skills – are the abilities that

individuals possess acquired via teaching, training, or direct experience that enable them to cope with the demands

and challenges of everyday life.

The need for character education lies in the ‘moral crisis’ found in today’s societies. Character education is important

and necessary as modern societies are struggling with disturbing trends such as racism, xenophobia, violence, to

name a few. Character education can help people build good char acter that in turn can help build good societies.

Thomas Lickona, a leading expert in character education, has written extensively about the need for character

education today, citing several reasons for its importance, such as:

There is a clear and urgent need. Young people are increasingly hurting themselves and others and are

decreasingly concerned about contributing to the welfare of others.

Transmitting values is and always has been the work of civil ization. A society needs values education to

survive and thrive. Historically, this is a role shared by home, school, and faith communities.

There is common, ethical ground, even in our value-conflicted society.

Democracies have a special need for moral education because democracy is government by the people

themselves.

The great questions facing both the individual person and the human race are moral questions. Of utmost importance: How should I live my life? How can we live with one another?

Character education is a doable job.

Have you come across the term ‘character education’ before? If so, where? How would you define ‘character

education’ in your own words?

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References

BENNINGA, J.S., 1997. Schools, character development and citizenship. In: MOLNAR, A. (Ed). The construction o f

children’s character. Ninety-sixth yearbook of the National Society for the study of Education, part two. Chicago: The

University of Chicago Press, pp. 77-96.

BERKOWITZ, M.W., 2003. The science of character education. In: DAMON, W. (Ed). Bringing in a ne w era in character

education. Palo Alto, CA: Hoover Institution Press, pp. 43-63.

LICKONA, T., 1991. Educating for character: How our schools can teach respect and responsibility. New York: Bantam

Books.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS (NASP), 2003. Effective character education (Position

Statement). Bethesda, MD: Author.

ROKEACH, M., 1973. The nature of human values. New York: The Free Press.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO), 1993. Increasing the relevance of education for health professionals.

Technical report series 838.

Education and the Global Perspective

Education Today

In today’s world, some degree of education is necessary for people in most countries. Due to population growth and the proliferation of compulsory education, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years, more people will receive formal education than in any prior period of human history. In fact, illiteracy and the percentage of populations without any schooling have already decreased, from 36% in 1960 to 25% in 2000.

Education in its broadest, most general sense is a means through which the aims and habits of a group of people is passed from one generation to the next. Generally, education results from any experience that affects the way in which one thinks, feels, or acts. In its narrowest, most technical sense, education is the formal process (e.g., instruction in schools) by which society deliberately passes accumulated knowledge, skills, customs, and values from one generation to the next.

Education in the Developing World

India is developing technologies that bypass land-based telephone and internet lines. The country recently launched EDUSAT, an education satellite that can reach a great number of people at a significantly reduced cost. Another initiative, started by the OLPC foundation, involving a group from the MIT Media Lab, and supported by several major corporations, has developed a $100 laptop for the delivery of educational programs. As of 2008, the laptops were already widely available.

In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) has launched an e-school program. The goal is to provide 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials, and internet access within 10 years. Private groups, like Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, are also working to improve access to education through such programs as the Perpetual Education Fund.

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Internationalization ( Globalization and Education)

Education is becoming increasingly international, and mass schooling has promoted the fundamental idea that everyone has a right to be educated regardless of his/her cultural background. In Europe, for example, the Socrates-Erasmus Program fosters exchanges between European universities, while the Soros Foundation provides educational opportunities to students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have also contributed to the internationalization of education. Some scholars argue that, regardless of the perceived quality of different educational systems, experiencing a different system of education can be an important and enriching aspect of an international learning experience. Meanwhile, the global online campus, led by American universities, has promoted free access to class materials and lectures recorded during actual classes. This project further facilitates the globalization of education.

Recent Worldwide Trends

The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not occur until 1910, when a rise in big business and technological advances in factories (for instance, the emergence of electrification) required skilled workers. In order to meet new job requirements, high schools were created with curriculums focused on practical job skills that would prepare students for white- or blue-collar work. This emerging system proved to be beneficial for both the employer and the employee; improved job skills increased efficiency and lowered costs for employers, while skilled employees received higher wages.

Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods has been a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through earlier processes of colonialism. It has also enabled indigenous communities to strengthen links to their traditional languages and cultures, a process that has also been linked to increased academic success.

Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries, a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now obtain higher education at some point in their lives. Higher education is therefore important to national economies as both a significant industry in its own right and a source of trained and educated personnel.

As a result of the Internet, higher education is increasingly open and accessible. Online learning gives

students flexibility and choice in terms of what, when, and at what pace they learn. Many universities

and organizations are creating open educational resources that self-motivated students can access

anywhere and at any time. Unlike traditional forms of higher education, open, online education

generally does not take the form of recognized degr Key Points

In the developing world, there is economic pressure from those parents who prioritize sending their

children to work to make money in the short term over any long-term benefits of education.

Education economics is the study of economic issues relating to education, including the demand for education and the financing and provision of education.

The central idea of human capital is that undertaking education is investment in the acquisition of skills and knowledge which will increase earnings.

Human capital flight, more commonly referred to as the ” brain drain,” is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge.

Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving

performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.

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Key Terms

human capital: The stock of competencies, knowledge, social, and personality attributes, including creativity, embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to produce economic value.

brain drain: The migration of educated or talented people from less- economically advanced areas to more economically advanced areas, especially to large cities or richer countries.

Education Economics: The study of economic issues relating to education, including the demand for education and the financing and provision of education.

In developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced is naturally greater. People are sometimes unaware of the importance of education, and there is economic pressure from those parents who prioritize their children’s making money in the short term over any long-term benefits of education. Recent studies on child labor and poverty have suggested, however, that when poor families reach a certain economic threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school. This has been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential economic value of the children’s work has increased since their return to school.

Education and Economic Growth

It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth. Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. Education economics is the study of economic issues relating to education, including the demand for education and the financing and provision of education. The dominant model of the demand for education is based on human capital theory. The central idea is that undertaking education is investment in the acquisition of skills and knowledge, which will increase earnings or provide long-term benefits, such as an appreciation of literature. An increase in human capital can follow technological progress as knowledgeable employees are in demand due to the need for their skills, whether it be in understanding the production process or in operating machines. Human capital flight, more commonly referred to as the “brain drain,” is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals. The brain drain is often associated with de-skilling of emigrants in their country of destination, while their country of emigration experiences the draining of skilled individuals.

Educational Technology

Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. Technology of education is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student learning and may be measured in how and why individuals behave. There are various types of technologies currently used in traditional classrooms. Among these are computers in the classroom; a website for every class; class blogs and wikis; wireless classroom microphones; and online media and interactive whiteboards.

Educational technology is intended to improve education over what it would be without technology. Its benefits include easy-to-access course materials; increased student motivation; improved student writing; subjects made easier to learn; and differentiated instruction.

ee programs.

Q.2 Compare the basic philosophies e.g. Ontology, Epistemology and Axiology? Apply these

philosophies to the field of education. (20)

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دان پر الگو کریں۔نیادی فلسفہ کا موازنہ کریں اونٹولوجی، ایپوسٹیمولوجی اور اگزیالوجی؟ ان فلسفہ کو تعلیم کے می2س

Ontology, epistimology and axiology 1. It studies on the truth and the nature knowledge itself Scientific Philosophy of Education: Prof. DR. Muhmidayeli,

M.Ag PPs UIN Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau, T.A 2014 Theory of value related to the use of gained knowledge

Axiology is understood as a theory of value “Axios” means “appropriateness/reasonable”. “Logos” means

“knowledge” 1. Scientific Philosophy of Education: Scientific Philosophy: Ontology, Epistimology and Axiology Presented by Mhd. Absor, Hasanul Bisni and Yanti UIN SULTAN SYARIF KASIM RIAU Scienctific Philosophy : Ontology/metaphysics, Epistemology and Axiology Definition of Terms a. axiology

2. 2. Esthetic; looking at something (good, bad, elegance, etc) Franz Magnis Suseno states that ethics is meant as critical and systematical thoughts of moral views/values. The contents of moral views related to norms, tradition, preaching, and humans behaviors. Scientific Philosophy of Education: Prof. DR. Muhmidayeli, M.Ag PPs UIN

Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau, T.A 2014 Ethic; morality, norms, behaviors of humans Scientific Philosophy of Education: Scientific Philosophy: Ontology, Epistimology and Axiology Presented by Mhd. Absor, Hasanul Bisni and Yanti UIN SULTAN SYARIF KASIM RIAU b. Assessment in Axiology

3. 3. Subjective is mostly viewing the various views form ones including thinking, feeling of like and dislike, etc.

Scientific Philosophy of Education: Prof. DR. Muhmidayeli, M.Ag PPs UIN Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau, T.A 2014

The pure truth is not reliant on one’s thought but on factual basis Value viewed as a “Objective” not “Subjective”.

Philosophy is as scientific methodology to handle problem faces d. Correlation of Axiology and Philosophy of

Science Philosophy is seen as life views. Philosophy is as a collection of theoretical framework to understand

and respond/give reaction towards thought of faculty Scientific Philosophy of Education: Scientific Philosophy: Ontology, Epistimology and Axiology Presented by Mhd. Absor, Hasanul Bisni and Yanti UIN SULTAN SYARIF KASIM RIAU c. Usages of Axiology

4. 4. It is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature, scope of knowledge, basic premises, and responsibility of statements existing in knowledge itself. Methodology of Epistemology 1. Inductive 2. Deductive 3. Positivism 4. Contemplative 5. Dialectic Scientific Philosophy of Education: Prof. DR. Muhmidayeli, M.Ag PPs UIN Sultan Syarif

Kasim Riau, T.A 2014 It is similar to theory of knowledge. Scientific Philosophy of Education: Scientific Philosophy: Ontology, Epistimology and Axiology Presented by Mhd. Absor, Hasanul Bisni and Yanti UIN SULTAN SYARIF KASIM RIAU b. Epistemology

5. 5. Are the different entities and categories viewed as truly exist? Scientific Philosophy of Education: Prof. DR.

Muhmidayeli, M.Ag PPs UIN Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau, T.A 2014 What basic facts and truly exist? What groups

of existing things? what is meant by “Exist”? It studies on the nature, existence/reality, hierarchy, similarity,

basic category and its relations. The Liang Gie Ontology is to explore the existence of things by questioning:

ὄντος genitive: “to become" and λογία,-logia: “knowledge, research and theory: Scientific Philosophy of Education: Scientific Philosophy: Ontology, Epistimology and Axiology Presented by Mhd. Absor, Hasanul Bisni and Yanti UIN SULTAN SYARIF KASIM RIAU c. Ontology

6. 6. Scientific Philosophy of Education: Scientific Philosophy: Ontology, Epistimology and Axiology Presented by

Mhd. Absor, Hasanul Bisni and Yanti UIN SULTAN SYARIF KASIM RIAU Suriasumantri mentions that Ontology discussing more on what we want to know, to what extend our knowing,. Or study of “exist”. Ontology tries to give clarification of questions: a. What knowledge is being investigated b. How to create the nature of those existing things c. How is the correlation among those existing things to human minds and senses e.g thinking, feeling, and tasting to result a certain knowledge Aristotles defines that ontology is a study in philosophical field to determine the real nature of things to take its meanings, structure and its basic principles. Scientific Philosophy of Education: Prof. DR. Muhmidayeli, M.Ag PPs UIN Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau, T.A 2014

7. 7. To gains its goals, rationalism absolutely need the freedom of thinking; acquiring to develop one potentials and

forming character buildings Scientific Philosophy of Education: Prof. DR. Muhmidayeli, M.Ag PPs UIN Sultan Syarif

Kasim Riau, T.A 2014 Knowledge is in basis of humans rationales linked to empirical experience It is a

meeting of human’s minds and soul toward outer space of real world. Trends in Education: Rationalism,

Empiricism, Criticism and Positivism Presented by Mhd. Absor, Hasanul Bisni and Yanti UIN SULTAN SYARIF KASIM RIAU Trends in Philosophy : Rasionalism, Empericsm, Criticsm, Positivism 1. Rationalism

8. 8. Scientific Philosophy of Education: Scientific Philosophy: Ontology, Epistimology and Axiology Presented by Mhd. Absor, Hasanul Bisni and Yanti UIN SULTAN SYARIF KASIM RIAU In summary, two main things take into consideration of rasionalisme: 1. A strong belief that the real truth is directly gained by means of minds 2. Logical expansion of thoughts is to prove the real knowledge Some experts supported this premises consist of Rene

Descartes (1596- 16 ), Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) , Blaise Pascal (1623- 1662), Leibniz (1632-1677). It is also defined as a truthfulness of humans minds as the effort of thinking freely. Rasionalisme exists in accordance with the doubtfulness of Rene descartes’ considerations. He applies a method of doubtfulness to become a certainty. Scientific Philosophy of Education: Prof. DR. Muhmidayeli, M.Ag PPs UIN Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau, T.A 2014

9. 9. Senses are the mains tools to know worlds or to acquire the knowledge existing in real worlds, as Bacon states.

Scientific Philosophy of Education: Prof. DR. Muhmidayeli, M.Ag PPs UIN Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau, T.A 2014

Knowledge comes from sense experience since it is clearly perfectly proven. It is viewed as an understanding of

experience towards the real world and emotional experience “Empiris“ means “senses’ experience” Scientific

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Philosophy of Education: Scientific Philosophy: Ontology, Epistimology and Axiology Presented by Mhd. Absor, Hasanul Bisni and Yanti UIN SULTAN SYARIF KASIM RIAU 2. Empiricism

10. 10. UIN SULTAN SYARIF KASIM RIAU Bacon remind to all philosophical experts dealing with drawing a false conclusion from previous idols:: 1. tribus; drawing a rush conclusion 2. Specus; drawing conclusion based on own interest/needs 3. fori ; drawing conclusion based on majority of votes 4. Theatri; drawing a conclusion based on prior knowledge Bacon introduce an experimental method to investigate and do a research through experience to know things and its interrelated laws among real things. Scientific Philosophy of Education: Scientific Philosophy: Ontology, Epistimology and Axiology Presented by Mhd. Absor, Hasanul Bisni and Yanti Scientific Philosophy of Education: Prof. DR. Muhmidayeli, M.Ag PPs UIN Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau, T.A 2014

11. 11. UIN SULTAN SYARIF KASIM RIAU Bacon remind to all philosophical experts dealing with drawing a false conclusion from previous idols:: 1. Tribus; drawing a rush conclusion 2. Specus; drawing conclusion based on own interest/needs 3. Fori ; drawing conclusion based on majority of votes 4. Theatri; drawing a conclusion based on prior knowledge Bacon introduce an experimental method to investigate and do a research through experience to

know things and its interrelated laws among real things. Scientific Philosophy of Education: Scientific Philosophy: Ontology, Epistimology and Axiology Presented by Mhd. Absor, Hasanul Bisni and Yanti Scientific Philosophy of Education: Prof. DR. Muhmidayeli, M.Ag PPs UIN Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau, T.A 2014

Differ Between ontology, epistemology, and axiology Epistemology is concerned with knowledge. Ontology is concerned with being. Axiology is concerned with values.

We humans do not have access to the actual world. So, we built models in order to make sense of the world.

Epistemology gives us the perimeters of knowledge concerning our model of the world and the methodologies to know the world.

Ontology is about what exists and what does not exist (basic). Ontology is a subbranch of metaphysics. Furthermore, metaphysics is informed by epistemology.

Axiology is about values such as good and bad, moral and immoral. Questions about what the meaning of life is and how we should live. Axiology is informed by both epistemology and metaphysics.

Even though the philosophy of science has moved somewhat away from positivism to a wider understanding of science and knowledge, there still is little agreement about defining science. Researchers are concerned about the

dissertations that they were reading which had no mention of philosophy or the philosophical underpinnings of their research questions or designs. The researcher's concerns about PhD students (earning a Doctor of Philosophy degree) who never mentioned the word " philosophy " in their dissertations prompted this study. This research really wondered and wanted to know if the Philosophy of Science and Theory Development course has relevance. In a research world that supports quantitative research with a bias against qualitative designs, the research is curious about the experiences of PhD students who had experienced both the Philosophy of Science and Theory Development and Qualitative Methods of Inquiry courses. In conclusion effort was made to clarify what ontology, epistemology and axiology entail so as to have clear understanding of what the terms mean.

What do ontology, epistemology, and axiology mean Ontology is from Greek onto=being + logy=the study of. Therefore, ontology is the study of being, also called metaphysics. It is the study of the substrate of existence which in the created world is divided into act and potency and, specifically as ontology, being is divided into esse, or the “act” of existence, and essence, or the “what” of existence, esse accounting for act and essence accounting for potency.

Epistemology is from Greek episteme=knowledge, understanding, or belief + -logy=the study of. Therefore, epistemology is the study of knowing, that is, what is knowledge both as a thing in itself and as function as the gnoseological, intellective and reasoning, activity of the knowing subject. It examines both what we know, esse and essences, and how we know them, by intuition and reason, respectively. Sense, memory and imagination can also be included under the umbrella of epistemology as a philosophical discipline since the content of the three are used by the mind in its activity of knowing the world and itself.

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Axiology is from Greek axios=worthy + -logy=the study of. Therefore, axiology is the study of the nature of the worthy conceived of as value, specifically as to ethics and aesthetics, which are value-based realities.

What, Why, and How? Ontology, Axiology, and Epistemology

Abstract: In this chapter we use the philosophical concepts of ontology, axiology, and epistemology to

understand STEM more completely. We first provide a brief orientation to the history of how these terms have been used in philosophical discourse; then we delve into an overview of these three categories with

respect to each subarea of STEM, starting with mathematics and science. In each case we explain how

they have historically been implemented in education, and philosophically how they have been utilized to

critique and/ or aid inquiry into each subcontent area. In conclusion, we refine the picture by addressing the axiology, epistemology, and ontology of STEM as a singular unit.

Philosophy of STEM Education DOI: 10.1057/9781137535467.0007 The educational acronym “STEM” represents a multidisciplinary education

perspective that combines the disciplines of science, technology, and engineering with mathematics. This may be

significant since past policy reforms, which were also concerned about the need to maintain global competitiveness,

concentrated on mathematics, foreign language, and science education (Klein, 2003). What is unique about STEM is

that mathematics and science are no longer enough for knowledge acquisition of a modern citizen, but must

be intertwined with technology and engineering. These latter fields differ substantially, for

example, from mathematics, which included abstract thinking that does not necessarily apply to

practical uses. This turn in policy discourse may imply a crucial turn in the way our society values and

teaches students about mathematics and the other disciplines. In this chapter we use the philosophical concepts of ontology, axiology, and epistemology to understand STEM more completely. To begin, this will require analyzing

the STEM disciplines each on their own (in particular mathematics and science education). This will provide a

background to understand STEM’s interdisciplinay content and the way that STEM as a unit complicates each of

these content areas. First, however, we review philosophical terms ontology, epistemology, and axiology in greater

detail especially with respect to their application to educational inquiry. Traditionally, philosophy has five branches: metaphysics (ontology—the study of the state of being); logic (the study of reasoning); ethics (axiology—

the study of what one ought to do or what is right); aesthetics (the study of beauty, art); and epistemology (the study

of knowledge and scope of knowledge). Figure 2.1 depicts a diagram of three of these philosophical domains and

how they can relate to education. We intend it to provide a guide for the philosophical terms we are using

throughout this book. Ontology relates to the conceptual assumptions we have about what STEM is about (e.g., for

mathematics, what numbers are, how functions and geomet- ric properties interact with the empirical world). Epistemology relates to pedagogical theories as to how best to teach STEM, which are based on a theoretical and/or

research-driven approach that claims children learn mathematics, science, engineering, and technology knowledge in

a certain way. Axiology relates to objectives of STEM education regarding why children should learn STEM

content. These are based on broader normative views as to what STEM knowledge ought to be used for. In what

follows, we first provide a brief orientation in the history of how these terms have been used in philosophical

discourse.

Philosophical Perspectives in

Education

Overview

Philosophy means "love of wisdom." It is made up of two Greek words, philo,

meaning love, and sophos, meaning wisdom. Philosophy helps teachers to reflect on

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key issues and concepts in education, usually through such questions as: What is

being educated? What is the good life? What is knowledge? What is the nature of

learning? And What is teaching? Philosophers think about the meaning of things and

interpretation of that meaning. Even simple statements, such as "What should be

learned? Or What is adolescence?" set up raging debates that can have major

implications. For example, what happens if an adolescent commits a serious crime?

One interpretation may hide another. If such a young person is treated as an adult

criminal, what does it say about justice, childhood, and the like? Or if the adolescent

is treated as a child, what does it say about society's views on crime?

Your educational philosophy is your beliefs about why, what and how you teach,

whom you teach, and about the nature of learning. It is a set of principles that guides

professional action through the events and issues teachers face daily. Sources for your

educational philosophy are your life experiences, your values, the environment in

which you live, interactions with others and awareness of philosophical approaches.

Learning about the branches of philosophy, philosophical world views, and different

educational philosophies and theories will help you to determine and shape your own

educational philosophy, combined with these other aspects.

When you examine a philosophy different from your own, it helps you to "wrestle"

with your own thinking. Sometimes this means you may change your mind. Other

times, it may strengthen your viewpoint; or, you may be eclectic, selecting what

seems best from different philosophies. But in eclecticism, there is a danger of sloppy

and inconsistent thinking, especially if you borrow a bit of one philosophy and stir in

some of another. If serious thought has gone into selection of strategies, theories, or

philosophies, this is less problematic. For example, you may determine that you have

to vary your approach depending on the particular learning needs and styles of a given

student. At various time periods, one philosophical framework may become favored

over another. For example, the Progressive movement led to quite different

approaches in education in the 1930s. But there is always danger in one "best or only"

philosophy. In a pluralistic society, a variety of views are needed.

Q.3 Elaborate the Islamic philosophy of education and its application in the present education

system. (20)

کتا ہے؟تعلیم کے اسالمی فلسفہ کی وضاحت کریں اور موجودہ تعلیم کے نظام میں اسے کس طرح رائج کیا جا س ۔ 3س

ANS: Aims and purposes of Muslim education

Islam placed a high value on education, and, as the faith spread among diverse peoples, education became

an important channel through which to create a universal and cohesive social order. By the middle of the

9th century, knowledge was divided into three categories: the Islamic sciences, the philosophical and natural sciences (Greek knowledge), and the literary arts. The Islamic sciences, which emphasized the

study of the Qurʾān (the Islamic scripture) and the Ḥadīth (the sayings and traditions of the

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Prophet Muhammad) and their interpretation by leading scholars and theologians, were valued the most highly, but Greek scholarship was considered equally important, albeit less virtuous.

Early Muslim education emphasized practical studies, such as the application of technological expertise to

the development of irrigation systems, architectural innovations, textiles, iron and steel products,

earthenware, and leather products; the manufacture of paper and gunpowder; the advancement of commerce; and the maintenance of a merchant marine. After the 11th century, however, denominational

interests dominated higher learning, and the Islamic sciences achieved preeminence. Greek knowledge

was studied in private, if at all, and the literary arts diminished in significance as educational policies encouraging academic freedomand new learning were replaced by a closed system characterized by an

intolerance toward scientific innovations, secular subjects, and creative scholarship. This denominational

system spread throughout eastern Islam from Transoxania (roughly, modern-day Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and southwest Kazakhstan) to Egypt, with some 75 schools in existence between about 1050 and 1250.

Organization of education

The system of education in the Muslim world was unintegrated and undifferentiated. Learning took place

in a variety of institutions, among them the ḥalqah, or study circle; the maktab (kuttab), or elementary

school; the palace schools; bookshops and literary salons; and the various types of colleges,

the meshed, the masjid,and the madrasa. All the schools taught essentially the same subjects. The simplest type of early Muslim education was offered in the mosques, where scholars who had

congregated to discuss the Qurʾān began before long to teach the religious sciences to interested adults.

Mosques increased in number under the caliphs, particularly the ʿAbbāsids: 3,000 of them were reported in Baghdad alone in the first decades of the 10th century; as many as 12,000 were reported

in Alexandria in the 14th century, most of them with schools attached. Some mosques—such as that of al-

Manṣūr, built during the reign of Hārūn al-Rashīd in Baghdad, or those in Isfahan, Mashhad, Ghom, Damascus, Cairo, and the Alhambra (Granada)—became centres of learning for students from all over the

Muslim world. Each mosque usually contained several study circles (ḥalqah), so named because the

teacher was, as a rule, seated on a dais or cushion with the pupils gathered in a semicircle before him. The

more advanced a student, the closer he was seated to the teacher. The mosque circles varied in approach, course content, size, and quality of teaching, but the method of instruction usually emphasized lectures

and memorization. Teachers were, as a rule, looked upon as masters of scholarship, and their lectures

were meticulously recorded in notebooks. Students often made long journeys to join the circle of a great teacher. Some circles, especially those in which the Ḥadīth was studied, were so large that it was

necessary for assistants to repeat the lecture so that every student could hear and record it.

Elementary schools (maktab, or kuttab), in which pupils learned to read and write, date to the pre-Islamic period in the Arab world. After the advent of Islam, these schools developed into centres for instruction in

elementary Islamic subjects. Students were expected to memorize the Qurʾān as perfectly as possible.

Some schools also included in their curriculum the study of poetry, elementary arithmetic,

penmanship, ethics (manners), and elementary grammar. Maktabs were quite common in almost every town or village in the Middle East, Africa, Sicily, and Spain.

Schools conducted in royal palaces taught not only the curriculum of the maktabs but also social

and cultural studies designed to prepare the pupil for higher education, for service in the government of the caliphs, or for polite society. The instructors were called muʾaddibs, or instructors in good manners.

The exact content of the curriculum was specified by the ruler, but oratory, history, tradition,

formal ethics, poetry, and the art of good conversation were often included. Instruction usually continued

long after the pupils had passed elementary age. The high degree of learning and scholarship in Islam, particularly during the ʿAbbāsid period in eastern

Islam and the later Umayyads in western Islam, encouraged the development of bookshops, copyists,

and book dealers in large, important Islamic cities such as Damascus, Baghdad, and Córdoba. Scholars and students spent many hours in these bookshop schools browsing, examining, and studying available

books or purchasing favourite selections for their private libraries. Book dealers traveled to famous

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bookstores in search of rare manuscripts for purchase and resale to collectors and scholars and thus contributed to the spread of learning. Many such manuscripts found their way to private libraries of

famous Muslim scholars such as Avicenna, al-Ghazālī, and al-Fārābī, who in turn made their homes

centres of scholarly pursuits for their favourite students.

Fundamental to Muslim education though the circle schools, the maktabs, and the palace schools were, they embodied definite educational limitations. Their curricula were limited; they could not always attract

well-trained teachers; physical facilities were not always conducive to a congenial educational

environment; and conflicts between religious and secular aims in these schools were almost irreconcilable. Most importantly, these schools could not meet the growing need for trained personnel or

provide sufficient educational opportunities for those who wished to continue their studies. These

pressures led to the creation of a new type of school, the madrasa, which became the crown and glory of medievalMuslim education. The madrasa was an outgrowth of the masjid, a type of

mosque college dating to the 8th century. The differences between these two institutions are still being

studied, but most scholars believe that the masjid was also a place of worship and that, unlike the

madrasa, its endowment supported only the faculty and not the students as well. A third type of college, the meshed(shrine college), was usually a madrasa built next to a pilgrimage centre. Whatever their

particularities, all three types of college specialized in legal instruction, each turning out experts in one of

the four schools of Sunni, or orthodox, Islamic law. Madrasas may have existed as early as the 9th century, but the most famous one was founded in 1057 by

the vizier Niẓām al-Mulk in Baghdad. The Niẓāmīyah, devoted to Sunni learning, served as a model for

the establishment of an extensive network of such institutions throughout the eastern Islamic world, especially in Cairo, which had 75 madrasas; in Damascus, which had 51; and in Aleppo, where the

number of madrasas rose from 6 to 44 between 1155 and 1260.

Important institutions also developed in western Islam, under the Umayyads, in the Spanish cities of

Córdoba, Sevilla (Seville), Toledo, Granada, Murcia, Almería, Valencia, and Cádiz. The madrasas had no standard curriculum; the founder of each school determined the specific courses that would be taught, but

they generally offered instruction in both the religious sciences and the physical sciences.

The contribution of these institutions to the advancement of knowledge was vast. Muslim scholars calculated the angle of the ecliptic; measured the size of the Earth; calculated the precession of the

equinoxes; explained, in the field of optics and physics, such phenomena as refraction of light, gravity,

capillary attraction, and twilight; and developed observatories for the empirical study of heavenly bodies.

They made advances in the uses of drugs, herbs, and foods for medication; established hospitals with a system of interns and externs; discovered causes of certain diseases and developed correct diagnoses of

them; proposed new concepts of hygiene; made use of anesthetics in surgery with newly innovated

surgical tools; and introduced the science of dissection in anatomy. They furthered the scientific breeding of horses and cattle; found new ways of grafting to produce new types of flowers and fruits; introduced

new concepts of irrigation, fertilization, and soil cultivation; and improved upon the science

of navigation. In the area of chemistry, Muslim scholarship led to the discovery of such substances as potash, alcohol, nitrate of silver, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and mercury chloride. It also developed to a

high degree of perfection the arts of textiles, ceramics, and metallurgy.

Major periods of Muslim education and learning

The renaissance of Islamic culture and scholarship developed largely under the ʿAbbāsid administration

in eastern Islam and later under the Umayyads in western Islam, mainly in Spain, between 800 and 1000.

This latter period, the golden age of Islamic scholarship, was largely a period of translation and interpretation of Classical thoughts and their adaptation to Islamic theology and philosophy. The period

also witnessed the introduction and assimilation of Hellenistic, Persian, and Hindu mathematics,

astronomy, algebra, trigonometry, and medicine into Muslim culture.

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Whereas the 8th and 9th centuries—mainly between 750 and 900—were characterized by the introduction of Classical learning and its refinement and adaptation to Islamic culture, the 10th and 11th were

centuries of interpretation, criticism, and further adaptation. There followed a period of modification and

significant additions to Classical culture through Muslim scholarship. Creative scholarship in Islam from

the 10th to the 12th century included works by such scholars as Omar Khayyam, al-Bīrūnī, Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā), al-Ṭabarī, Avempace (Ibn Bājjah), and Averroës (Ibn Rushd). During the

12th and 13th centuries, most of the works of Classical learning and the creative Muslim additions were

translated from Arabic into Hebrew and Latin. These translations were instrumental in bringing about the early phases of the European intellectual awakening, which coincided with the decline of Muslim

scholarship.

Influence of Islamic learning on the West

As Europe was absorbing the fruits of Islam’s centuries of creative productivity, signs of Latin Christian

awakening were evident throughout the European continent. The 12th century was one of intensified traffic of Muslim learning into the Western world through many hundreds of translations of Muslim

works, which helped Europe seize the initiative from Islam when political conditions in Islam brought

about a decline in Muslim scholarship. By 1300, European scholars stood once again on the solid ground

of Hellenistic thought, enriched or modified through Muslim and Byzantine efforts.

Islam has, from its inception, placed a high premium on education and has enjoyed a long and

rich intellectual tradition. Knowledge ('ilm) occupies a significant position within Islam, as

evidenced by the more than 800 references to it in Islam's most revered book, the Koran. The

importance of education is repeatedly emphasized in the Koran with frequent injunctions, such as

"God will exalt those of you who believe and those who have knowledge to high degrees"

(58:11), "O my Lord! Increase me in knowledge" (20:114), and "As God has taught him, so let

him write" (2:282). Such verses provide a forceful stimulus for the Islamic community to strive

for education and learning.

Islamic education is uniquely different from other types of educational theory and practice

largely because of the all-encompassing influence of the Koran. The Koran serves as a

comprehensive blueprint for both the individual and society and as the primary source of

knowledge. The advent of the Koran in the seventh century was quite revolutionary for the

predominantly illiterate Arabian society. Arab society had enjoyed a rich oral tradition, but the

Koran was considered the word of God and needed to be organically interacted with by means of

reading and reciting its words. Hence, reading and writing for the purpose of accessing the full

blessings of the Koran was an aspiration for most Muslims. Thus, education in Islam

unequivocally derived its origins from a symbiotic relationship with religious instruction.

History of Islamic Education

Thus, in this way, Islamic education began. Pious and learned Muslims (mu' allim or mudarris),

dedicated to making the teachings of the Koran more accessible to the Islamic community,

taught the faithful in what came to be known as the kuttāb (plural, katātīb). The kuttāb could be

located in a variety of venues: mosques, private homes, shops, tents, or even out in the open.

Historians are uncertain as to when the katātīb were first established, but with the widespread

desire of the faithful to study the Koran, katātīb could be found in virtually every part of the

Islamic empire by the middle of the eighth century. The kuttāb served a vital social function as

the only vehicle for formal public instruction for primary-age children and continued so until

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Western models of education were introduced in the modern period. Even at present, it has

exhibited remarkable durability and continues to be an important means of religious instruction

in many Islamic countries.

The curriculum of the kuttāb was primarily directed to young male children, beginning as early

as age four, and was centered on Koranic studies and on religious obligations such as ritual

ablutions, fasting, and prayer. The focus during the early history of Islam on the education of

youth reflected the belief that raising children with correct principles was a holy obligation for

parents and society. As Abdul Tibawi wrote in 1972, the mind of the child was believed to be

"like a white clean paper, once anything is written on it, right or wrong, it will be difficult to

erase it or superimpose new writing upon it" (p. 38). The approach to teaching children was

strict, and the conditions in which young students learned could be quite harsh. Corporal

punishment was often used to correct laziness or imprecision. Memorization of the Koran was

central to the curriculum of the kuttāb, but little or no attempt was made to analyze and discuss

the meaning of the text. Once students had memorized the greater part of the Koran, they could

advance to higher stages of education, with increased complexity of instruction. Western analysts

of the kuttāb system usually criticize two areas of its pedagogy: the limited range of subjects

taught and the exclusive reliance on memorization. The contemporary kuttāb system still

emphasizes memorization and recitation as important means of learning. The value placed on

memorization during students' early religious training directly influences their approaches to

learning when they enter formal education offered by the modern state. A common frustration of

modern educators in the Islamic world is that while their students can memorize copious

volumes of notes and textbook pages, they often lack competence in critical analysis and

independent thinking.

During the golden age of the Islamic empire (usually defined as a period between the tenth and

thirteenth centuries), when western Europe was intellectually backward and stagnant, Islamic

scholarship flourished with an impressive openness to the rational sciences, art, and even

literature. It was during this period that the Islamic world made most of its contributions to the

scientific and artistic world. Ironically, Islamic scholars preserved much of the knowledge of the

Greeks that had been prohibited by the Christian world. Other outstanding contributions were

made in areas of chemistry, botany, physics, mineralogy, mathematics, and astronomy, as many

Muslim thinkers regarded scientific truths as tools for accessing religious truth.

Gradually the open and vigorous spirit of enquiry and individual judgment (ijtihād) that

characterized the golden age gave way to a more insular, unquestioning acceptance (taqlīd) of

the traditional corpus of authoritative knowledge. By the thirteenth century, according to Aziz

Talbani, the 'ulama' (religious scholars) had become "self-appointed interpreters and guardians

of religious knowledge.… learning was confined to the transmission of traditions and dogma,

and [was] hostile to research and scientific inquiry" (p. 70). The mentality of taqlīd reigned

supreme in all matters, and religious scholars condemned all other forms of inquiry and research.

Exemplifying the taqlīd mentality, Burhän al-Din al-Zarnüji wrote during the thirteenth century,

"Stick to ancient things while avoiding new things" and "Beware of becoming engrossed in those

disputes which come about after one has cut loose from the ancient authorities" (pp. 28, 58).

Much of what was written after the thirteenth century lacked originality, and it consisted mostly

of commentaries on existing canonical works without adding any substantive new ideas. The

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lethal combination of taqlīd and foreign invasion beginning in the thirteenth century served to

dim Islam's preeminence in both the artistic and scientific worlds.

Despite its glorious legacy of earlier periods, the Islamic world seemed unable to respond either

culturally or educationally to the onslaught of Western advancement by the eighteenth century.

One of the most damaging aspects of European colonialism was the deterioration of indigenous

cultural norms through secularism. With its veneration of human reason over divine revelation

and its insistence on separation of religion and state, secularism is anathema to Islam, in which

all aspects of life, spiritual or temporal, are interrelated as a harmonious whole. At the same time,

Western institutions of education, with their pronounced secular/religious dichotomy, were

infused into Islamic countries in order to produce functionaries to feed the bureaucratic and

administrative needs of the state. The early modernizers did not fully realize the extent to which

secularized education fundamentally conflicted with Islamic thought and traditional lifestyle.

Religious education was to remain a separate and personal responsibility, having no place in

public education. If Muslim students desired religious training, they could supplement their

existing education with moral instruction in traditional religious schools–the kuttāb. As a

consequence, the two differing education systems evolved independently with little or no official

interface.

Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education

The Arabic language has three terms for education, representing the various dimensions of the

educational process as perceived by Islam. The most widely used word for education in a formal

sense is ta'līm,from the root 'alima (to know, to be aware, to perceive, to learn), which is used to

denote knowledge being sought or imparted through instruction and teaching. Tarbiyah, from the

root raba (to increase, to grow, to rear), implies a state of spiritual and ethical nurturing in

accordance with the will of God. Ta'dīb, from the root aduba (to be cultured, refined, well-

mannered), suggests a person's development of sound social behavior. What is meant

by sound requires a deeper understanding of the Islamic conception of the human being.

Education in the context of Islam is regarded as a process that involves the complete person,

including the rational, spiritual, and social dimensions. As noted by Syed Muhammad al-Naquib

al-Attas in 1979, the comprehensive and integrated approach to education in Islam is directed

toward the "balanced growth of the total personality…through training Man's spirit, intellect,

rational self, feelings and bodily senses…such that faith is infused into the whole of his

personality" (p. 158). In Islamic educational theory knowledge is gained in order to actualize and

perfect all dimensions of the human being. From an Islamic perspective the highest and most

useful model of perfection is the prophet Muhammad, and the goal of Islamic education is that

people be able to live as he lived. Seyyed Hossein Nasr wrote in 1984 that while education does

prepare humankind for happiness in this life, "its ultimate goal is the abode of permanence and

all education points to the permanent world of eternity" (p. 7). To ascertain truth by reason alone

is restrictive, according to Islam, because spiritual and temporal reality are two sides of the same

sphere. Many Muslim educationists argue that favoring reason at the expense of spirituality

interferes with balanced growth. Exclusive training of the intellect, for example, is inadequate in

developing and refining elements of love, kindness, compassion, and selflessness, which have an

altogether spiritual ambiance and can be engaged only by processes of spiritual training.

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Education in Islam is twofold: acquiring intellectual knowledge (through the application of

reason and logic) and developing spiritual knowledge (derived from divine revelation and

spiritual experience). According to the worldview of Islam, provision in education must be made

equally for both. Acquiring knowledge in Islam is not intended as an end but as a means to

stimulate a more elevated moral and spiritual consciousness, leading to faith and righteous

action.

Q.4 Elaborate the philosophy of idealism in the context of Metaphysics. Determine the

relationship of idealism with aims and processes of education?

کے تناظر میں ائڈیالزم کے فلسفہ کی وضاحت کریں۔ میٹا فیزکس 4س

ںتعلیم کے مقاصد اور عمل کے ساتھ ائڈیالزم کے تعلق کا تعین کری

ANS: Four General or World Philosophies

The term metaphysics literally means "beyond the physical." This area of philosophy

focuses on the nature of reality. Metaphysics attempts to find unity across the domains

of experience and thought. At the metaphysical level, there are four* broad

philosophical schools of thought that apply to education today. They are idealism,

realism, pragmatism (sometimes called experientialism), and existentialism. Each will

be explained shortly. These four general frameworks provide the root or base from

which the various educational philosophies are derived.

* A fifth metaphysical school of thought, called Scholasticism, is largely applied in Roman Catholic schools in the

educational philosophy called "Thomism." It combines idealist and realist philosophies in a framework that

harmonized the ideas of Aristotle, the realist, with idealist notions of truth. Thomas Aquinas, 1255-127, was the

theologian who wrote "Summa Theologica," formalizing church doctrine. The Scholasticism movement encouraged

the logical and philosophical study of the beliefs of the church, legitimizing scientific inquiry within a religious

framework.

Two of these general or world philosophies, idealism and realism, are derived from

the ancient Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle. Two are more

contemporary, pragmatism and existentialism. However, educators who share one of

these distinct sets of beliefs about the nature of reality presently apply each of these

world philosophies in successful classrooms. Let us explore each of these

metaphysical schools of thought.

Idealism Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only

true reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice

that is enduring and everlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind.

Plato, father of Idealism, espoused this view about 400 years BC, in his famous

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book, The Republic. Plato believed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual

or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is

also the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste,

and sound, that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often referred

to as the duality of mind and body. Reacting against what he perceived as too much of

a focus on the immediacy of the physical and sensory world, Plato described a utopian

society in which "education to body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which

they are capable" as an ideal. In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the sensory

world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To understand

truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also

believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the

Universal Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so education requires

bringing latent ideas (fully formed concepts) to consciousness.

In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities

and full moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is

subject matter of mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods

focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method

of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and clarify knowledge).

Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring to

consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is

developed through imitating examples and heroes.

Realism Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate

reality is the world of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is

objective-what can be observed. Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his

mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the scientific

method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality through

"the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data." Aristotle believed that to

understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change.

For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in

the mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties

with all other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and another

peach colored. Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order

to be able to reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational

thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind. The Realist curriculum

emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and

mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content systematically within a

discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus

on mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students

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must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using

observation and experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifically approached,

standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed through training in

the rules of conduct.

Pragmatism (Experientialism)

For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this

late 19th century American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience.

Unlike the Realists and Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly

changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to

problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of

the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works.

Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who

believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to

indecisiveness.

John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive

approaches. He believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their

environment. Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All

learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and circumstance. Different

cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a democratic

society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order. Character

development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.

For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving,

experimenting, and projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should

bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary

way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners,

Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real situations

through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and

future careers.

Existentialism The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual.

The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual

choice and individual standards rather than external standards are central. Existence

comes before any definition of what we are. We define ourselves in relationship to

that existence by the choices we make. We should not accept anyone else's

predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take responsibility for deciding

who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we

make meaning of our lives.

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There are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. Soren

Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, is considered to be the

founder of existentialism. His was a Christian orientation. Another group of

existentialists, largely European, believes that we must recognize the finiteness of our

lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than believing in salvation through God.

Our existence is not guaranteed in an after life, so there is tension about life and the

certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more austere European approaches

where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of the end of

existence, American existentialists have focused more on human potential and the

quest for personal meaning. Values clarification is an outgrowth of this movement.

Following the bleak period of World War II, the French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre,

suggested that for youth, the existential moment arises when young persons realize for

the first time that choice is theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their

question becomes "Who am I and what should I do?

Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter

of personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in

which the learner must confront others' views to clarify his or her own. Character

development emphasizes individual responsibility for decisions. Real answers come

from within the individual, not from outside authority. Examining life through

authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning experiences. Existentialists

are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked, or

standardized. Such educators want the educational experience to focus on creating

opportunities for self-direction and self actualization. They start with the student,

rather than on curriculum content.

Idealism and the Aims of Education

Introduction

Idealism is the metaphysical and epistemological doctrine that ideas or thoughts make up

fundamental reality. Essentially it is any philosophy which argues that the only thing actually

knowable is consciousness whereas we never can be sure that matter or anything in the outside

world really exists thus the only the real things are mental entities not physical things which exist

only in the sense that they are perceived. A broad definition of idealism could include many

religious viewpoints although an idealistic viewpoint need not necessarily include God,

supernatural beings or existences after death. In general parlance, “idealism” is also used to

describe a person’s high ideals (principles or values actively pursued as a goal) the word “ideal”

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is also commonly used as an adjective to designate qualities of perfection, desirability and

excellence.

Definition:

“Idealistic philosophy takes many and varied forms but the postulate underlying all this is that

mind or spirit is the essential world stuff, that the rule reality is a material character”.

Idealism in education:

Idealism pervades all the creation and it is an underlying, unlimited and ultimate force which

regions supreme overall mind and matter. They all advocate its great importance in education

and lay more emphasis on aims and principles of education than on models, aids and devices.

Idealism and Aims of Education:

The following are the aims of education according to the philosophy of idealism:

Self-realization or Exhalation of Personality:

According to the idealism man is the most creation of God. Self- realization involves full of

knowledge of the self and it is the first aim of education “The aim of education especially

associated with idealism is the exhalation of personality or self-realization it is the making actual

or real personalities of the self.”

To Ensure Spiritual Development:

Idealistic give greater importance to spiritual values in comparison with material attainments.

The second aim of education is to develop the child mentally, morally and above all spiritually.

“Education must enable mankind through its culture to enter more and more fully into the

spiritual realm”.

Development of Intelligences and Rationality:

“In all things their regions an external law this all pervading energetic, self conscious and hence

eternal law this all pervading energetic. This unity is God. Education should lead and guide man

to face with nature and to unity and God”.

Idealism and Curriculum

Idealists give more importance to thoughts, feelings ideals and values than to the child and his

activities. They firmly hold that curriculum should be concerned with the whole humanity and its

experience.

Views of Plato about curriculum

According to Plato the aim of life is to realize God. Which is possible only by pursing high

ideals namely Truth, Beauty, and Goodness. Three types of activities namely intellectual,

aesthetic and moral cancan attain these high ideals.

Views of Herbart Curriculum

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According to Herbart the idealistic aim of education is the promotion of moral values. He gave

prime importance to subjects like Literature, History, Art, Music, and Poetry together with other

humanities and secondary place to scientific subjects.

History of Idealism

Plato is one of the first philosophers to discuss what might be termed idealism. Usually Plato

referred to as Platonic Realism. This is because of his doctrine describes forms or universals.

(Which are certainly non-material “ideals” in a broad sense). Plato maintained that these forms

had their own independent existence. Plato believed that “full reality” it is achieved only through

thought and could be describe as a non-subjective “transcendental” idealist. The term

metaphysics literally means “beyond the physical” This area of Philosophy a focuses on the

nature of reality. Metaphysics attempts to find unity across the domains of experiences thought.

At the time metaphysical level there are four broad philosophical schools of thought that apply to

education today. They are idealism, realism, pragmatism (sometimes called experientialism and

existentialism). Plato was an idealist philosopher who founded the first school of philosophy in

Athens. His work forms the foundation of western philosophy. His presentation of philosophical

works in the form of “Dialogues” gave the world of philosophy the dialectic. Plato took

Socrates’ maxim “virtue is knowledge” and extrapolated it into an elaborate theory of knowledge

which envisaged a level of reality beyond that immediately available to the senses but accessible

to reason and intellect. The students of Plato’s academy the first school of philosophy in Athens,

were to go beyond the concrete world of perception and come to understand the universal

“ideas” or forms which represented a higher level of reality. Plato’s idealism extended to the

concept of an ideal state as outlined in his “Republic”. This was a state ruled by an intellectual

elite of philosopher kings.

Definition of Naturalism:

The meaning of the name “Naturalism” is strongly implied in the word itself. It is the view point

which regards the world of nature as the all in all of reality naturalism commonly known as

“Materialism” It is a philosophical paradigm whereby everything can be explained in terms of

natural causes. Naturalism by definition excludes any super natural agent or activity. “Naturalism

is not science but an assertion about science. More specifically it is the assertion that scientific

knowledge is final, leaving no room for extra scientific or Philosophy knowledge.” (R. B. Perry)

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Naturalism is usually defined most briefly as the philosophical concept that the only reality is

nature, as gradually discovered by our intelligence using the tools of experience, reason and

science.

According to naturalism:

“Man’s conscience is the voice of reason and the voice of nature.”

Protagonist of naturalism:

Aristotle

Comte

Hobbes

Herbert Spencer

Darwin

Samuel butler

Rousseau

The State of Nature as a Foundation for Ethics and Political Philosophy:

The scope of modern philosophy was not limited only to issues concerning science and

metaphysics. Philosophers of this period also attempted to apply the same type of reasoning to

ethics and politics. One approach of these philosophers was to describe human beings in the

“state of nature.” That is, they attempted to strip human beings of all those attributes that they

took to be the results of social conventions. In doing so, they hoped to uncover certain

characteristics of human nature that were universal and unchanging. If this could be done, one

could then determine the most effective and legitimate forms of government.

The two most famous accounts of the state of nature prior to Rousseau’s are those of Thomas Hobbes and John.

Hobbes contends that human beings are motivated purely by self-interest, and that the state of nature, which is the

state of human beings without civil society, is the war of every person against every other. Hobbes does say that

while the state of nature may not have existed all over the world at one particular time, it is the condition in which

humans would be if there were no sovereign. Locke’s account of the state of nature is different in that it is an

intellectual exercise to illustrate people’s obligations to one another. These obligations are articulated in terms of

natural rights, including rights to life, liberty and property. Rousseau was also influenced by the modern natural law

tradition, which attempted to answer the challenge of skepticism through a systematic approach to human nature

that, like Hobbes, emphasized self-interest. Rousseau therefore often refers to the works of Hugo Grotius, Samuel

von Pufendorf, Jean Bergerac, and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui. Rousseau would give his own account of the state of

nature in the Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality among Men, which will be examined below.

Biography of Rousseau:

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born June 28, 1712 in Geneva and died July 2, 1778 in Ermenonville, France. He was

one of the most important philosophers of the French enlightenment. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was also involved

philosophically and wrote his first major philosophical work in 1750. From this work he earned a prize from the

Academy of Dijon. The text, Discourse sur les sciences ET les arts, begins with a question, “The question before me

is: 'Whether the Restoration of the arts and sciences has had the effect of purifying or corrupting morals.” This first

discourse represents a radical critique of civilization. According to Rousseau, civilization is to be seen as a history of

decay instead of progress. He does not conceive of the world as necessarily “good” per se, but rather argues for a

sense of rationalism—one must attain rational knowledge in order to be able to control nature.

Rousseau is often referred to as the philosopher of freedom because he seemed to praise the

natural or primitive state of human beings over the civilized one and in nature, human beings like

animals free of the pressures and corruptions of the political state.Indeed, Rousseau’s views of

nature and the natural played a central role in his philosophy. He believed that “Man” was born

free and good and could remain that way in some ideal state of nature.

Rousseau’s conception of education:

Rousseau’s conception of education is naturalistic. He is against a system of conventional and

formal education. Conventional and formal education is man-made and hence, not desirable

“Everything is good as it comes from the hands of author of nature but everything degenerates in

the hand of man.”For Rousseau, education does not mean merely imparting information or

storing knowledge. Education from nature does not mean one of social life or institutions. It was

to prepare a natural man.”The natural man is not the savage man but man governed and directed

by the laws of his own nature rather than those of social institutions. Rousseau believed that the

education from man and things must be subordinates to that the natural powers, emotion ns and

reactions are more trustworthy as a basis for action than reflection or experience that comes from

association with society.

Rousseau’s views on the principles of teaching:

The principles of teaching as suggested implicitly by Rousseau reflect his naturalistic

philosophy. He lays stress on direct experience of things and on the principle of learning by

doing. He says, “Teach by doing whenever you can and only fall back on words when doing is

out of the question “He observes, too much reading serves only to make us presumptuous

blockheads conceited and sophisticated”. Besides these two principles, Rousseau advocates the

adoption of the heuristic attitude which places the child in the position to discover. (Emile)

For example, to learn science in a practical fashion, by means of rough experiments performed

with apparatus self-made and self–invented. Rousseau like a modern educators thinks less of the

teacher’s own exposition, much more of the learning experiences of the pupil. He is against the

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telling method and the tendency to be didactic. The telling method cannot cause the child to

learn.

Rousseau’s view on discipline:

Rousseau’s cry is “freedom” and “absence of restraint” for Emile, It is only in an atmosphere of

freedom that Emile can develop his innate powers spontaneously. Impositions are of no use.

Punishments have no value as the child has no correct conception of wrong or why punishment is

given. The child’s reasoning power is not well developed. He wants children to have their own

way, and to suffer the unavoidable consequences or inevitable reactions of their

conduct.”Children should never receive punishment as such it should always come as natural

consequences of their faults.”Rousseau advises the teacher not to intervene in matters of moral

guidance’s as a means of disciplining the child. He contends that the child’s nature is essentially

good, and any intervention is therefore, harmful.

Rousseau’s views on the education of woman:

In the fifth book of “Emile” Rousseau presents his views on women’s education by introducing

an imaginary woman called Sophy. While Emile’s education is unconventional and natural,

Sophy’s education is to be conventional and orthodox. Rousseau accounts for this difference: He

says that women is an appendage of man; her aim of life is to please her husband, to obey him,”

to bring him (man) up when he is a child, to tend him when he is a man, to counsel him, to

render his life agreeable and pleasant.” Hence a woman, according to Rousseau does not require

knowledge but taste and propriety of manners.

Rousseau’s views on social values:

Rousseau’s naturalism rooted man in nature rather than society. So much did he regard man as a

child of nature, as over against society, that he proposed in his Emile to keep Emile away from

society until adolescence. In his social contract he reveals how the problem of social

organization is complicated by the importance of the freedom of the man. Individual man, he

contented is not a man unless he is free if he is in bondage, he is less than a man. Yet unbridled

freedom is neither in harmony with his own welfare not the welfare of the society. Evidently

some social organization is needed, but one which preserves for man his freedom. It would seem

that for naturalism social values are synthetic values which result from agreements in which

individual men bind themselves together. They are second good, not so much preferred as

individual goods, which result indirectly as a consequence of the desire to avoid the grater evils

which accompany anarchy. They are not organic values, which are determined in part by the way

nature of society and which would never be possessed by individual men separately, even if they

did not need to be saved from conflict and chaos by some kind of social organization.

Conclusion:

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Rousseau has exerted great influence on education in its manifold aspects. Although his main

aim in life was to destroy traditionalism, yet many of the important principles in modern

pedagogy can be traced back to him. He asserted that education is a natural process; its function

is not to remark the nature of the child by forcing on him the traditional or customary way of

thinking and doing. It is due to Rousseau that the need of sense training and physical activities in

the earlier development of the child has been recognized in modern systems of education.

Pragmatism in Education

Outline

Introduction

Pragmatism in education

How relevant is pragmatism to the education system today

Example of pragmatism

Strength and advantages

conclusion

Pragmatism in Education was created by John Dewey. This is American pragmatism and

represents form idealism. Dewey's pragmatists views state that thinking of a person’s mind is

conditioned by the group of people he or she. Pragmatism emerged from the writings of John

Dewey who believed that experimentation was the best approach for educating young minds. For

example, pragmatists feel that field trips, educational excursions etc are more effective in

teaching students about the world instead of audio-visual aids. Pragmatism includes such as

thoughts as futurism, and educational humanism. Pragmatic education philosophy doesn't assign

a traditional role to the teachers who are only seen as guides and not exactly more

knowledgeable beings. Pragmatism focuses on real life experiences as the main source of

knowledge and education.(George R. Knight) They gives the example of field trips as he says

that for a child to learn about dairy products, its better to take him to a barn and let him

experience the whole thing himself instead of showing him a movie on the subject. (p. 75)

Idealism is an important philosophy that gained greater influence over education in the 20th

century and was not so popular prior to that. It has been present in the educational field for a long

time emphasizing the reality of ideas, thoughts, and mind over material.American pragmatism

represents an activist development of Kant and Hegel’s idealism. As a theory of mutable truth,

pragmatism claims that ideas are true insofar as they are useful in a specific situation what works

today in one case may not work tomorrow in another case. The standard of moral truth is

expediency. Ethical ideas are accepted as long as they continue to work. According to John

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Dewey’s social pragmatism, what is true is that which works for a society through the promotion

of the public good. Dewey advocates a relativistic, secularized form of altruism that calls for

sacrificing oneself to attain the ends of the People. In this view society, rather than the

individual, passes moral judgment. Social policies are measured by their consequences instead of

by abstract principles of what is right or just. There are no facts, no set rules of logic, no

objectivity, and no certainty. There are only policies and proposals for social actions that must be

treated as working hypotheses. The experience of consequences will indicate the need to keep or

alter the original hypotheses. For pragmatists knowledge of the world is impossible to separate

from actions upon it. There is no reality out there both facts and values are products of men

interacting with an environment and shaping it to their wills. Society, Men are free to choose

their own way of thinking and to create whatever reality they want to embrace. However, a

man’s mind is conditioned by the collective thinking of other people. The mind is thus a social

phenomenon truth is what works for the groups. It is participation in the common life of

democratic society that realizes the freedom of the individual and produces growth in him and in

society. They usually do not and need not reflect before acting. The goal of thought is merely to

reconstruct the situation in order to solve the problem. If the proposal, when implemented,

resolves the issue, then the idea is pragmatically true. Truth cannot be known in advance of

action. One must first act and then think. Only then can reality be determined. Value judgments

are to be made according to desires based on feelings. The test of one’s desire is its congruity

with the majority of other men’s wishes, feelings, and values at that time. These, of course, can

be examined and abandoned in a future context. Value judgments are instrumental, never

completed, and therefore are corrigible. In the end it is feeling, for the pragmatist that is

paramount.Dewey is primarily concerned with the democratic ideal and its realization in every

sphere of life. He advocates education as a way to reconstruct children according to the

pragmatist vision of man. Child-centered, rather than subject-centered, education treats the

student as an acting being and therefore is focused on discrete, experiential projects. Dewey

dismisses as irrelevant the teaching of fundamental knowledge such as reading, writing, math,

and science. Both the educator and the students are to be flexible and tentative. The purpose of a

school is to foster social consciousness. The child is to be taught to transcend the assimilation of

truths and facts by learning to serve and adapt to others and to comply with the directives of their

representatives. A disdain for reason and knowledge is thus combined with the practice of

altruism and collectivism. Like Marx, Dewey comprehended and appreciated the conflictual

essence of the Hegelian dialectic. Dewey stressed the clash in the education process between the

child and the curriculum and between the potential and talent of the student and the structure of

an outmoded school system. The traditional curriculum, loaded down with formal subjects, was

unsuited to the child’s active and immediate experience. Dewey saw children as alienated from

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their academic work because of a contradiction between the interests of the school and the real

interests of the students. There was an incongruity between the values, goals, and means

embodied in the experience of a mature adult and those of an undeveloped, immature being. The

teaching of abstract, general principles, and eternal and external truths was beyond a child’s

understanding and a barrier to the authentic growth and development of the child.

Dewey’s new school would become a vehicle for the de-alienation and socialization of the child.

The school would be an embryonic socialist community in which the progress of the student

could only be justified by his relation to the group. Dewey’s activity method and manual training

could produce a collective occupational spirit in the school. Dewey, like Marx, was convinced

that thought is a collective activity in which the individual simply acts as a cell in the social

body. For Dewey, cognition is an activity of the group or society as a whole and innovations are

the products of collective science and technology, rather than the creations of individual thinkers

and doers. John Dewey’s progressive model of active learning promoted a revolt against abstract

learning and attempted to make education an effective tool for integrating culture and vocation.

Dewey was responsible for developing a philosophical approach to education called

“experimentalism” which saw education as the basis for democracy. His goal was to turn public

schools into indoctrination centers to develop a socialized population that could adapt to an

egalitarian state operated by intellectual elite. Disavowing the role of the individual mind in

achieving technological and social progress, Dewey promoted the group, rather than the teacher,

as the main source of social control in the schools. Denying the ideas of universal principles,

natural law, and natural rights, Dewey emphasized social values and taught that life adjustment is

more important than academic skills. Dewey explained that the subject matter and moral lessons

in the traditional curricula were meant to teach and inspire, but were irrelevant to the students’

immediate action experiences. The contradiction between the students’ real interests and those of

the traditional school alienated students from their schoolwork. School-age children were caught

between the opposing forces of immature, undeveloped beings and the values, meanings, and

aims of subject matter constructed by a mature adult. Dewey believed that students’ energy,

talent, and potential could not be realized within the structure of an archaic school system.

A good example of pragmatism would be technical or career education. If you know somebody

isn't going to make it through college, there's no point in teaching them things that won't directly

apply to a job he or she may have. In order to prepare them for the workforce, some of their

school day is used to prepare them for a specific trade. E.g. why teach somebody who is going to

be an auto mechanic the elements of plot since they're never going to have a practical application

for that knowledge.

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When students learn how to follow procedures they more secure about their environment and

what is expected of them. This security allows the student to feel relaxed in his environment

because he has mastered the environment. He is not insecure about what to do next. This helps

students get back on task after something such as a fire drill. It also allows for seamless teaching

with a substitute teacher because procedures will stay the same. This reduces behavior problems

and keeps the focus on learning and educating.

Conclusion

Nature and comprehend knowledge as the product of the interaction between human being and

environment, and knowledge as having practical instrumentality in the guidance and control of

that interaction. This means that knowledge is not a static given but a process and that any

proposition accepted as an item of knowledge has this status only provisionally, in other worlds

just a coincidence that it works. It soon can be replaced by a better proposition.

Realism

Realism in Education:

For the realist, the world is as it is, and the job of schools would be to teach students about the

world. Goodness, for the realist, would be found in the laws of nature and the order of the

physical world. Truth would be the simple correspondences of observation. The Realist believes

in a world of Things or Beings (metaphysics) and in truth as an Observable Fact. Furthermore,

ethics is the law of nature or Natural Law and aesthetics is the reflection of Nature.

AIMS OF EDUCATION:

Realists do not believe in general and common aims of education. According to them aims are

specific to each individual and his perspectives. And each one has different perspectives. The

aim of education should be to teach truth rather than beauty, to understand the present practical

life. The purpose of education, according to social realists, is to prepare the practical man of the

world.

REALISM AND THE CHILD:

Realism in education recognizes the importance of the child. The child is a real unit which has

real existence. He has some feelings, some desires and some powers. All these cannot be

overlooked. These powers of the child shall have to be given due regarding at the time of

planning education. Child can reach near reality through learning by reason. Child has to be

given as much freedom as possible. The child is to be enabled to proceed on the basis of facts;

the child can learn only when he follows the laws of learning.”

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REALISM AND THE TEACHER:

The teacher, for the realist, is simply a guide. The real world exists, and the teacher is

responsible for introducing the student to it. To do this he uses lectures, demonstrations, and

sensory experiences, the teacher does not do this in a random or haphazard way; he must not

only introduce the student to nature, but show him the regularities, the “rhythm” of nature so that

he may come to understand natural law. Both the teacher and the student are spectators, but

while the student looks at the world through innocent eyes, the teacher must explain it to him, as

well as he is able, from his vantage point of increased sophistication. For this reason, the

teacher’s own biases and personality should be as muted as possible. In order to give the student

as much accurate information as quickly and effectively as possible, the realist may advocate the

use of teaching machines to remove the teacher’s bias from factual presentation. The whole

concept to teaching machines is compatible with the picture or reality as a mechanistic universe

in which man is simply one of the cogs in the machine.

A teacher should be such that he himself is educated and well versed with the customs of belief

and rights and duties of people, and the trends of all ages and places. He must have full mastery

of the knowledge of present life. He must guide the student towards the hard realities of life. He

is neither pessimist, nor optimist. He must be able to expose children to the problems of life

and the world around.

REALISM AND CURRICULAM:

According to humanistic realism, classical literature should be studied but not for studying its

form and style but for its content and ideas it contained.

Sense-realism- attached more importance to the study of natural sciences and contemporary

social life. Study of languages is not so significant as the study of natural sciences and

contemporary life.

Neo-realism- gives stress on the subject physics and on humanistic feelings, physics and

psychology, sociology, economics, Ethics, Politics, history, Geography, agriculture varied arts,

languages and so on, are the main subjects to be studied according to the Neo-realists.

REALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The method of the realists involves teaching for the mastery of facts in order to develop an

understanding of natural law. This can be done by teaching both the materials and their

application. In fact, real knowledge comes only when the organism can organize the data of

experience. The realist prefers to use inductive logic, going from the particular facts of sensory

experience to the more general laws deducible from these data.

References

Breed, F. (1942). Education and the Realistic Outlook Philosophies of Education; national

society for the study of education, forty-first yearbook, Part 1. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press.

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Broundy,S. (1961). Building a Philosophy of Education. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,

Inc.

Butler, J., Donald, Four Philosophies and Their… Education and Religion. New York: Harper &

Row.

Herbart, J.F., The Science of Education. Boston: D.C.Heath & Company, 1902.

Locke, John. Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1902. The

basic statement of Locke’s epistemological position.

Singh,Y.K.,(2007). Philosophy Foundation Of Education: Ansari road: S.B.Nangia.

Shahid, S.M.,(2002). History and Philosophy of Education: Islamabad: Yousaf Mustaq.

Weber, Christian O., Basic Philosophies of Education. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,

Inc. 1960.

Q.5 Discuss the fundamental principles of the four traditional philosophies of education and

highlight the aims of education of each philosophy. (20)

یاں کریںتعلیم کے چار روایتی فلسفوں کے بنیادی اصولوں پر بحث کریں اور ہر فلسفے کی تعلیم کے مقاصد نما ۔5س

ANS:

Educational Philosophies

Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and

how we come to know, there are four major educational philosophies, each

related to one or more of the general or world philosophies just discussed.

These educational philosophical approaches are currently used in classrooms

the world over. They are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and

Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies focus heavily on WHAT

we should teach, the curriculum aspect.

Perennialism For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire

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understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have

the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that

are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the

natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching

these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their

minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest

priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on

attaining cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines.

The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the great works

of literature and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this

educational philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great

Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who further developed this

curriculum based on 100 great books of western civilization.

Essentialism Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be

transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this

conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools

should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and

academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in some ways

to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may

change. Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable

members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and

"the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and

logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be

taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help

students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or

mindlessness. This approach was in reaction to progressivist approaches

prevalent in the 1920s and 30s. William Bagley, took progressivist approaches

to task in the journal he formed in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism are:

James D. Koerner (1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and

Theodore Sizer (1985).

Progressivism Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather

than on the content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that

students should test ideas by active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the

questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is active, not

passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning

through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context.

Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing.

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Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions. The

scientific method is used by progressivist educators so that students can study

matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on process-

how one comes to know. The Progressive education philosophy was

established in America from the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s. John

Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets was that the school should

improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and

democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with

students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than

authority.

Reconstructionism/Critical Theory Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of

social questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide

democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights

social reform as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the

founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World

War II. He recognized the potential for either human annihilation through

technology and human cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society

using technology and human compassion. George Counts (1889-1974)

recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating this

new social order.

Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be

changed to overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire

(1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose experiences living in poverty led him to

champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social change. In his view,

humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress

others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of

awareness to overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as

banking," in which the educator deposits information into students' heads,

Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must

invent and reinvent the world.

For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on

student experience and taking social action on real problems, such as violence,

hunger, international terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing

with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and literature), inquiry,

dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning

and bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.

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Philosophy of education: philosophical reflection on the nature, aims, and problems of education. The philosophy of education

is Janus-faced, looking both inward to the parent discipline of philosophy and outward to educational

practice. (In this respect it is like other areas of “applied” philosophy, such as the philosophy of law, the philosophy of science, and the philosophy of medicine, including bioethics.) This dual focus requires

it to work on both sides of the traditional divide between theory and practice, taking as its subject matter

both basic philosophical issues (e.g., the nature of knowledge) and more specific issues arising from

educational practice (e.g., the desirability of standardized testing). These practical issues in turn have implications for a variety of long-standing philosophical problems

in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and political philosophy. In addressing these many issues and

problems, the philosopher of education strives for conceptualclarity, argumentative rigour, and informed valuation.

Principal Historical Figures

The history of philosophy of education is an important source of concerns and issues—as is the history of

education itself—for setting the intellectual agenda of contemporary philosophers of education. Equally relevant is the range of contemporary approaches to the subject. Although it is not possible here to review

systematically either that history or those contemporary approaches, brief sketches of several key figures

are offered next.

The Western philosophical tradition began in ancient Greece, and philosophy of education began with it. The major historical figures developed philosophical views of education that were embedded in their

broader metaphysical, epistemological, ethical, and political theories. The introduction by Socrates of the

“Socratic method” of questioning (see dialectic) began a tradition in which reasoning and the search for reasons that might justify beliefs, judgments, and actions was (and remains) fundamental; such

questioning in turn eventually gave rise to the view that education should encourage in all students and

persons, to the greatest extent possible, the pursuit of the life of reason. This view of the central place of

reason in education has been shared by most of the major figures in the history of philosophy of education, despite the otherwise substantial differences in their other philosophical views. Pause

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Socrates’ student Plato endorsed that view and held that a fundamental task of education is that of helping

students to value reason and to be reasonable, which for him involved valuing wisdom above pleasure, honour, and other less-worthy pursuits. In his dialogue Republic he set out a vision of education in which

different groups of students would receive different sorts of education, depending on their abilities,

interests, and stations in life. His utopian vision has been seen by many to be a precursor of what has

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come to be called educational “sorting.” Millennia later, the American pragmatist philosopher John Dewey (1859–1952) argued that education should be tailored to the individual child, though he rejected

Plato’s hierarchical sorting of students into categories.

Plato’s student Aristotle also took the highest aim of education to be the fostering of good judgment or

wisdom, but he was more optimistic than Plato about the ability of the typical student to achieve it. He also emphasized the fostering of moral virtue and the development of character; his emphasis on virtue

and his insistence that virtues develop in the context of community-guided practice—and that the rights

and interests of individual citizens do not always outweigh those of the community—are reflected in contemporary interest in “virtue theory” in ethics and “communitarianism” in political philosophy.

(1712–78) famously insisted that formal education, like society itself, is inevitably corrupting; he argued

that education should enable the “natural” and “free” development of children, a view that eventually led

to the modern movement known as “open education.” These ideas are in some ways reflected in 20th-

century “progressivism,” a movement often (but not always accurately) associated with Dewey. Unlike

Plato, Rousseau also prescribed fundamentally distinct educations for boys and girls, and in doing so he

raised issues concerning gender and its place in education that are of central concern today. Dewey

emphasized the educational centrality of experience and held that experience is genuinely educational

only when it leads to “growth.” But the ideathat the aim of education is growth has proved to be a

problematic and controversial one, and even the meaning of the slogan is unclear. Dewey also

emphasized the importance of the student’s own interests in determining appropriate educational

activities and ends-in-view; in this respect he is usually seen as a proponent of “child-centred” education,

though he also stressed the importance of students’ understanding of traditional subject matter. While

these Deweyan themes are strongly reminiscent of Rousseau, Dewey placed them in a far more

sophisticated—albeit philosophically contentious—context. He emphasized the central importance of

education for the health of democratic social and political institutions, and he developed his educational

and political views from a foundation of systematic metaphysics and epistemology.

Some may argue that philosophy is the essence of education and without knowing your philosophy how can you learn, how can you teach, how can you live? In this article the four main branches of philosophy will be discussed as an overview to aid

in understanding the importance of philosophy as a teacher, educator, parent, or student.

The word philosophy is derived from two Greek words. The first word, philo, means “love.” The second, sophy, means

“wisdom.” Literally, then, philosophy means “love of wisdom”. Each individual has an attitude toward life, children, politics , learning, and previous personal experiences that informs and shapes their set of beliefs. Although you may not be conscious

of it, this set of beliefs, or personal philosophy, informs how you live, work, and interact with others. What you believe is

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directly reflected in both your teaching and learning processes. This chapter explores the various philosophical views that

influence the teaching profession.

Although the role of Eastern philosophy in the history of the world and in education has been significant, this chapter

focuses on the role of Western philosophy in shaping the educational philosophies prevalent in the United States. It is

important to understand how philosophy and education are interrelated. To become the most effective teacher you can be, you must understand your own beliefs, while at the same time empathizing with others. Developing your own educational

philosophy is a key part of your journey to becoming a teacher.

To understand the foundations of educational philosophies, it’s necessary to first examine philosophy’s four main branches.

Understanding educational philosophy will contribute to the understanding of how these foundations have given rise to what is commonly practiced and believed in the classroom today. The four main branches of philosophy are metaphysics,

epistemology, axiology, and logic.

Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that considers the physical universe and the nature of ultimate reality. It asks questions like, What is real? What is the origin of the world? What is beyond the stars? Your consideration of reality as an

external creation or an internal construct can influence your metaphysical beliefs and perspectives and your teaching.

Regardless of your definition of reality, the exploration and categorization of the physical universe form the foundation of

several school subjects.

Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that considers how people come to learn what they know.

Derived from the Greek word episteme, meaning knowledge or understanding, epistemology refers to the nature and origin of knowledge and truth. Epistemology proposes that there are four main bases of knowledge: divine revelation, experience,

logic and reason, and intuition. These influence how teaching, learning, and understanding come about in the classroom.

Axiology

Axiology is the branch of philosophy that considers the study of principles and values. These values are divided into two

main kinds: ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the questioning of morals and personal values. Aesthetics is the examination of

what is beautiful, enjoyable, or tasteful. In axiology education is more than just about knowledge but also quality of life.

Logic

Logic is the branch of philosophy that seeks to organize reasoning. Students of logic learn how to think in a structurally

sound manner. Logic has two types: deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning involves examining a general

case, deducing a general set of rules or principles, and then applying these rules to specific cases. Inductive reasoning

involves taking specific examples and considering the general principles, rules, or cases that caused them.

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