mla student guidelines 2009

8/3/2019 Mla Student Guidelines 2009

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J. J. Strossamayer University in Osijek

Faculty of Philosophy

THEORY AND MECHANICS OF WRITING INMLA STYLE



Osijek, 2009Outline:

1. Theoretical part

1.1. What is an essay?

1.2. Paragraph

1.3. Composition

1.4. Argumentation

1.5. Style introduction

1.6. Diction

1.7. Research paper

1.8. A Basic 10 Step Research Strategy

2. Mechanics

2.1. The Format

2.2. Punctuation

2.3. Mechanics

2.4. How to Quote?

2.5. How to Create Works Cited List?

2.6. Research Paper Sample

3. Exercises

4. References

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1. Theoretical part

1.1. WHAT IS AN ESSAY?

Essay is a piece of writing in which students with logical and educated arguments try to

explain their position on a particular theme.

Basic structure of an essay:

1. Introduction:

- should include a few general statements about the subject to provide a background

to the essay and to attract the reader’s attention

- introduce the central idea

2. Main body:

- main body consists of one or more paragraphs that contain main ideas and

arguments of the essay together with illustrations or examples

- the body of a standard school essay consist of mainly three paragraphs- in the first paragraph - give the arguments or examples for the main idea

- in the second - you attack your own idea with counterarguments

- in the third - you give more arguments or examples that will conquer

counterarguments

- purpose of the essay must be made clear and the reader must be able to follow its

development

3. Conclusion:

- includes the writer’s final point

- recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw together the points made in the

main body

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- signal the reader that the essay is finished and leave a clear impression that the

purpose of the essay has been achieved

1.2 PARAGRAPH

Whatever the purpose of writing, we always write in paragraphs, that is groups of related

sentences set off by a beginning indention.

Composing paragraphs has two goals:

• to express fully your ideas

• to help readers to follow and appreciate your thoughts

Qualities of effective paragraphs are:

• unity : the paragraph reflects one idea, meaning that each paragraph is an entity of its

own that contributes to the main idea

o it is customary that this idea appears at the beginning of the paragraph, but it can

also be stated elsewhere

o paragraph is unified if it holds together – of that is if all its details and examples

support the central idea

• coherence: parts of the paragraph relate clearly to each other

o paragraph is coherent if readers can see how the paragraph holds together

o when the reader must reread the sentence, it means that the sentences do not relate to

each other (or that the reader is not concentrated)

o the best trick to create coherence is by using transitional phrases – they state therelationship between the sentences clearly

o transitional phrases are also used for transition between paragraphs

addition again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important,

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finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in thefirst place, last, moreover, next, second, still, too

comparison also, in the same way, likewise, similarly

concession granted, naturally, of course

contrast

although, and yet, at the same time, but at the sametime, despite that, even so, even though, for all that,however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless,notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand,otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet

emphasis certainly, indeed, in fact, of course

example or

illustration

after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed, in fact, in other words,

in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, thatis, to illustrate, thus, truly

summary

all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief,in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, insimpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is,therefore, to put it differently, to summarize

time sequence

after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as longas, at last, at length, at that time, before, besides,earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further,furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the past,

last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently,second, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon,still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too, until, untilnow, when

• development: the idea of the paragraph is well supported with specific evidence such as

details, facts, examples, and reasons

o arrange the examples (chronologically, spatially, general-to-specific…)

Length

• not proscribed

• the average, however is between 4-8 sentences (100-150 words)

• it depends on the idea you are trying to convey

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• not too short - it is either irrelevant or the idea is inadequately developed

• not too long - it contains more than one idea

• each paragraph is an essay on its own, it has a little introduction (main idea),

details/evidence as the main body, and a short summary for a conclusion

Special types of paragraphs:

• Introduction /introductory paragraph

o to draw readers attention

o states what will the essay be about

o Begin with an attention grabber

- s tartling information

This information must be true and verifiable, and it doesn't need to be

totally new to your readers. It could simply be a pertinent fact that

explicitly illustrates the point you wish to make

- Anecdote

An anecdote is a story that illustrates a point. Be sure your anecdote is

short, to the point, and relevant to your topic. This can be a very effective

opener for your essay, but use it carefully.

- Dialogue

An appropriate dialogue does not have to identify the speakers, but the

reader must understand the point you are trying to convey. Use only two or

three exchanges between speakers to make your point

- Summary Information

A few sentences explaining your topic in general terms can lead the reader

gently to your thesis. Each sentence should become gradually more

specific, until you reach your thesis.

o do not open with “The purpose of this essay is…/The essay is about…”

o don’t open with a dictionary definition

o don’t apologize for your opinion

• Conclusion

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o The conclusion brings closure to the reader, summing up your points or providing

a final perspective on your topic

o All the conclusion needs is three or four strong sentences which do not need to

follow any set formula

o Simply review the main points (being careful not to restate them exactly) or

briefly describe your feelings about the topic

o an anecdote can end your essay in a useful way

o give a symbolic or powerful fact or idea

o don’t simply restate your introduction

o don’t close with the next question

1.3 COMPOSITION

No writing takes place in a vacuum. Your composition always depends on several factors,

which you have to take into consideration when writing. When writing a composition, consider

these:

• Purpose

• Audience

• Information

• The main idea

• Plan of organization

• Schemes for organizing ideas in an essay

• Revision and editing

These are not always chronological, sometimes one will have to go back and forth

1. PURPOSE

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http://members.tripod.com/~lklivingston/essay/intro.html#anecdote%23anecdote

http://members.tripod.com/~lklivingston/essay/intro.html#anecdote%23anecdote



5. PLAN OF ORGANIZATION

• Informal working plan:

o BRAINSTORM – list all things you know about the main idea

• Write an OUTLINE:

o An outline is:

A schematic summary

a logical, general description

An organizational pattern

A visual and conceptual design of your writing

o

Helps you organize your ideaso Keeps you focused

o Presents your material in a logical form

o Shows the relationships among ideas in your writing

o Constructs an ordered overview of your writing

• THE FIRST DRAFT :

o quickly write, do not concern about spelling, punctuation, and usage

o connect your outline into sentence form

o leave it for a day or two in order to get the distance and to be more objective

• TITLE:

o After writing the whole composition, you can decide on the most appropriate title (in

case that the title has not been assigned, only topic)

6. SCHEMES FOR ORGANIZING IDEAS IN AN ESSAY

SPACE

o Spatial organization is appropriate for expository essays that describe a place, an

object, or a person.

TIME

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o Chronological organization is appropriate for reports of events that occurred in time,

usually form first to last

EMPHASIS

o Deductive scheme (general to specific)

common in expository and argumentative essays that start with general

discussion and lead to specific examples

o Inductive scheme (specific to general)

is used in expository and argumentative essays that start with specific

examples that lead to more general ideas and conclusions

7. STRATEGIES OF DEVELOPMENT

They are a natural thinking process useful when you are generating ideas about your topic.

o NARRATIVE – How did it happen?

mostly chronological arrangement, important events are more elaborated upon,

less significant events are merely summarized

First experience with the essay?

When did you write your first essay?

o DESCRIPTION – How does it look like?

spatial arrangement in description of a person, place, or thing

What does the essay look like?

o ILLUSTRATION OR SUPPORT – How can it be illustrated or supported?

list examples and reasons for your topic in order to support it

How does the essay writing course helps you for your studies?

o DEFINITION – What is it?

specify the precise meaning of the word, object, or concept in order to

differentiate the topic form other things in the same class

Define an essay? (A piece of writing…)

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o DIVISION AND CLASSIFICATION – What are its parts or characteristics? How can it

be categorized ?

list and detail the parts or classes of your topic

What are the basic types of essays? (categorized by purpose)

o COMPARISON AND CONTRAST – How is it like, or different from, other things?

examine similarities and differences between topics

In what way are essays different from creative writing/personal

letters/novels…?

o CAUSE& EFFECT – What are its causes or effects?

leads to one or two organizations: first explain the effect and examine its

causes, or explain the cause and examine possible effects

Why were essays important?

What is their effect in you/on academic community?

o PROCESS ANALYSIS – How does it work?

chronologically explain how something is functioning, step by step

How to write an essay?

8. REVISION AND EDITING

o THE ESSAY AS A WHOLE

1. Does the whole essay stick to the purpose?

2. Have you kept the audience in mind? Do any terms require definition?

3. Is the focus consistent? Do the ideas in the essay show clear relationship to the

central ideas, or thesis?

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4. Is the central idea or thesis sharply conceived? Does your thesis statement clearly

suggest the stand and approach you are taking?

5. Have you chosen an effective method of development?

6. Is the reasoning sound in the essay and in individual paragraphs and sentences?

7. Will the introduction attract reader’s interest? Does it indicate what the essay is

about?

8. Does the essay come to a satisfying close?

o PARAGRAPHS

1. Are all the paragraphs unified? Are there any ideas in any paragraph that do not

belong there?

2. Is each paragraph coherent? Are sentences in each paragraph in a natural and effective

order? Are the sentences connected by suitable transitional phrases, repetition of key

words?

3. Is progression between paragraphs easy and natural? Are there clear transitions where

needed?

4. Is each paragraph adequately developed?

o SENTENCE AND DICTION

1. Are ideas giving appropriate emphasis within the sentence?

2. Does each pronoun refer clearly to its antecedent?

3. Are the sentences varied in length and type?

4. Are there any fragments?

5. Do all verbs agree with the subject?

6. Have you used the appropriate form of the verb?

7. Are any words imprecise or vague?

8. Have you avoided or defined all technical words that are unfamiliar to the audience?

9. Are all the words spelled out correctly?

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1.4 ARGUMENTATION

Critical thinking and writing

• base your writing and reading on logical thinking

• to determine the validity of an argument, you have to understand its main

points

• Summarizing the main points will help you understand

• using well-reasoned and well-supported arguments, you will persuade the

reader

• you will become critical to what you hear and see

• logical thinking and knowledge on fallacies will help you evaluate other

people's writing as well

• you will be able to recognize problems in your own and others writing

• logical thinking and knowledge of fallacies will help you not just in writing

but also in reading someone else’s paper, and in discussion with your friends.

Effective reasoning

INDUCTIVE REASONING

Build on evidence

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Students rarely attend showings of the school film society,

which presents only serious foreign films. Your colleagues seem to prefer SF,

adventure, and horror movies. A magazine article says that these three kinds of

entertainment are the most popular with people under twenty-five.

Give a cause to these pieces of evidence (generalization)

The president of the school film society is unaware of students’

needs and preferences.

DEDUCTIVE REASONING

SYLLOGISM – major premise (general)

- minor premise (specific)

- conclusion

Essays containing common fallacies get poor grades.

Your essay contains fallacies.

Your essay will get a poor grade.

Unstated premises

Mrs. Smith has taught essay writing for fifteen years, so she should know a

great deal about the mechanic of writing.

John’s father is an alcoholic, so he will become one too.

Overstated premises

Drunk drivers are always young people.

o Use limiting words such as some, many, and often rather than absolute words

such as all , no one, never , or always

FACING THE QUESTION

Thesis statement usually centers on an issue or question. A good paper is if you manage

to answer the question or support the statement with good arguments (facts and evidence).

However, this can be rather difficult so writers usually oversimplify complex issues or argue

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only superficially about them. Although favored opinion dies hard, the readers must be

critical of the evidence that does not support it (if you are against abortion and you are

reading someone’s essay that is also against abortion but the evidence is poor, you must be

critical).

Begging the question - the writer begs the reader to accept his or her ideas from

the start.

Teenagers should be prevented from having abortions, for they would not become

pregnant in the first place if they weren’t allowed to terminate their “mistakes”.

Ignoring the question – writers sometimes ignore the question with appeals readers’ fear,

pity, or sense of decency. There is also the matter of snob appeal.

As any literate person knows, William Faulkner is the best twentieth century

novelist.

FALLACIES = some kinds of faulty inductive and deductive reasoning, which are

common in all sorts of writing. You should try to avoid them because they will weaken

your essay.

o NON SEQUITUR - a statement that does not follow logically from

what just has been said

Joe is honest; therefore he will get a good job.

o HASTY GENERALIZATION – a generalization based on too little

evidence or on exceptional and biased evidence

Teenagers are reckless drivers.

The French are good lovers and the British have bad teeth. (based on

a stereotype)

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o OVERSIMPLIFICATION – an argument that links two events as if

one caused the other directly, whereas the causes may be more complex, or the relation

does not exist at all

People who pass tests are lucky.

Poverty causes crime.

o FALSE CAUSE / POST HOC ERGO PROPTER HOC – the

assumption that because one event follows the other, he first is the cause of the other.

The new major took office last January, and crime in the streets has

already increased 25 percent.

o EITHER/OR FALLACY – stating that only two alternatives exist

when in fact there are more

We have only two choices: ban nuclear weapons or destroy the

Earth.

City policemen are either brutal or corrupt

o FALSE ANALOGY – the assumption that because two things are alike

in some ways, they must be alike in others

Since the books are about the same length and cover the same

material, one is probably as good as the other.

o AD HOMINEM – attacking a person who presents an issue rather than

dealing logically with the issue itself

We should not listen to her arguments against national health

insurance because she has enough money to afford private insurance.

o BANDWAGON – an argument saying that you will follow the majority

Everyone else is cheating, so why shouldn't I?

As everyone knows, marijuana use leads to heroin addiction.

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o CIRCULAR REASONING – similar to a definition that restates the

subject and its predicate

A computer virus as a virus that infects a computer.

o RED HERRING – dodging the real issue or drawing attention to the

irrelevant issue

Why worry about few terrorist when we ought to be doing something

about the acid rain?

Argumentation writing is challenging because the aim is to affect, often to

change the way readers think/feel about the subject

When forming convictions about arguable topics (capital punishment,

euthanasia…) we interpret the evidence through our beliefs, values, desires, and

feelings.

The most effective arguments combine:

o RATIONAL APEALS (logical reasoning)

o EMOIONAL APPEALS (beliefs and feelings)

• RATIONAL APPEAL fails to address reader's feelings

• EMOTIONAL APPEAL fails to provide supporting evidence

ASSERTIONS are fundamental to an argument

o Test them

o FACTS – verifiable (we can determine if they are true)

The World War II ended in 1945.

o OPINION – a judgment based on facts, an honest attempt to draw

reasonable conclusion from the evidence

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If national health insurance is too expensive for the state,

we should think of other means to deal with inadequate medical care.

o BELIEF – a conviction based on cultural or personal faith, morality,

values

God exists.

They are not based on facts and other evidence

They should not serve as the thesis of an

argument

o PREJUDICE – an opinion based on insufficient or unexamined

evidence (Women are bad drivers.) Offensive belief attacking someone’s race,

ethnicity, intellect, or culture.

• Kinds of evidence

o STATISTICS

o EXAMPLES

o EXPERT OPINIONS (scientific)

• They are all

accurate

relevant

representative

adequate and thus they support the assertions and convince the reader

Pay attention to advertisement or presidential campaigns – they are full of

inappropriate appeals to emotions. Think about them!

1.5 STYLE INTRODUCTION

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• Style is the correct use of language.

• Style is the particular way in which something is done.

This general notes will help you to use the language correctly and also to create your own style.

SENTENCE UNITY

• Good writing is unified: it sticks to the purpose.

• It applies not only to the sentence level, but also to the whole composition or a paragraph.

o Make the relationship between ideas clear to the reader

o Avoid excessive or poorly ordered detail

o Eliminate unimportant detail because the length does not make the sentence

effective

o Avoid mixed metaphors

Playing with fire can get you into deep water.

o

Avoid faulty predication.

One book I read believes in eliminating subsides.

o Avoid awkward definitions; is-when, is-where, is-because.

The reason the package arrived so late is because he didn’t mail it soon

enough.

MODIFIERS• As a rule place modifiers near the words they modify.

Rex just died with his boots on.

Rex died with just his boots on.

Just Rex died with his boots on.

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o In formal English, modifiers like almost, only, just, even, hardly, nearly, and merely

are placed immediately before the words they modify.

The car cost only 500$.

o Avoid awkward separation of the infinitive.

I had in spite of my not living in a neighborhood as fine as Jenny’s a

healthy measure of pride.

o Avoid dangling modifiers, that is, phrases that do not refer clearly and logically to

another word or phrase in the sentence.

Not able to swim that far, a lifeguard came to my rescue.

Because I was not able to swim so far, a lifeguard came to my rescue.

SHIFTS

• Avoid needless shifts in grammatical structures, in tone or style, and in viewpoint.

• Abrupt, unnecessary shifts from past to present, from singular to plural, from formal

diction to slang, obscure the meaning and make the paper difficult to read.

While they waited George argued with the policeman and his brother

discusses the matter with the neighbor.

The senior class is planning to ask their teacher to their spring dance.

PRONOUNS

• The awkward use of you

When one cannot swim, you fear deep stormy waters.

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• Sometimes, the use of the impersonal, or indefinite you, is both natural and acceptable,

because it means “people in general” or “the reader”.

• Most writers, however, do not use it in formal context.

EMPHASIS

• Place important words and thoughts at the beginning or and of the sentence

• Use active voice rather then passive

• Gain emphasis by repeating important words

• Gain emphasis by inverting the word order

VARIETY

• Vary the structure and the length of your sentences; it is more interesting and dynamic.

• Avoid series of short and simple sentences. It is too choppy.

• Vary the beginnings of each sentence (adverb or a PP)

1.6. DICTION

• Language is maybe our most powerful tool

• with a strong language skill, we can more easily obtain what we want

• DICTION is the choice and the use of words

EXACTNESS

o Choose words that are exact, idiomatic, and fresh

o Good writing usually consists of short, familiar words

o Avoid wrong, inexact, or ambiguous usage

o Choose the word with the connotation as well as the denotation, appropriate to the

idea you wish to express

o Choose specific and concrete rather than the general and abstract words

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o To test whether the word is specific or not, ask questions like: “Exactly

what/what/when/where/how?”

Food - fast food – pizza

Bad children: rude, ungrateful, elfish

Bad meat: tough, tainted, overcooked, contaminated

o Use figurative language appropriately

o Use fresh expressions instead of trite, worn-out ones (use the vocabulary you pick up

at language practice)

WORDINESS

o Avoid wordiness – the use of more words than necessary to express an idea

• When you lack ideas, you start to explain roundabout

• Omit any unnecessary words in the essay

o Repeated words and ideas

the reason why is because

o Empty sentence openers

in my opinion

o

Needless intensifiers really, very

o Padded transitions

because of the fact that)

o Unnecessary clause openers

which/what is)

o Nouns ending in – ence, -ance, -ment, -tion that could be replaced with an

appropriate verb

The painting is a glorification of Queen Victoria.

The painting glorifies Queen Victoria.

• Waste of time

• Say what you have to say in as few words as possible

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o Repeat a word or a phrase only when it is needed for emphasis or clarity

WORDY: In the early part of the month of August, a hurricane was

moving threateningly toward Huston.

CORRECT: In early August, a hurricane was threatening Huston.

o Tautology is one example of wordiness - the use of different words that say

the same thing.

Commuters going back and forth to work or school

NEEDLESS REPETITION

• one word implies the meaning of the other (blue sky, first and foremost)

• eliminate redundant words

As I watched her skate, the impression that was most impressed on me was her

athletic grace.

• Modifiers

According to statistics, a new baby is born in the USA every three minutes.

REPETITIOUS: A humorous person can make any unhumorous situation

humorous.

CORRECT: A humorous person can turn any serious situation into a witty joke.

AVOID JARGON

o The special vocabulary of any discipline or profession (doctors, economists,

lawyers...)

o Also, any vague, inflated language that states relatively simple ides in unnecessarily

complicated way

o Usually it requires translation

JARGON: The necessity for individuals to become separate entities in their

own right way, impel children to engage in open rebelliousness against

parental authority or against sibling influence, with resultant confusion of

those being rebelled against.

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TRANSLATION: Children’s natural desire to become themselves may make

them rebel against bewildered parents or siblings.

USING UNBIASED LANGUAGE

o gender specific pronouns

A student planning to graduate this spring should see his advisor at once.

o avoid such problems by using the plural

Students planning to graduate this spring should see their advisor at once.

o occasional he or she is all right, but after a while it can become too demanding of the

readers attention and the devise becomes more important then the message

ACTIVE VS. PASSIVE

• Sometimes recommended because it gives a formal touch, but one should not exaggerate

ACTIVE: I found a lot of examples of humor in the play

PASSIVE: A lot of examples of humor are to be found in the play.

PARALLEL STRUCTURES

• A way to join and emphasize equally important ideas

• Nouns: Rosario and Maria

• Verbs: revise and edit

• Prepositional phrases: government of the people, by the people, for the people

• faulty parallelism occurs when linked words do not have the same grammatical form

He is tall, dark, handsome, and with a sly wit.

• Put words linked by a coordinating conjunction into a parallel form

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I love skiing and raft.

• Put words in series into a parallel form

As I plan this semester, I am dividing my life into three categories:

academic, work, and pleasure.

• Put words linked by correlative conjunctions into a parallel form

He dislikes both water rafting and camp.

1.7. RESEARCH PAPER

Research paper is body of information about a particular subject; it is scientific (objective,

referent, truthful…)

• differs from essays and composition - composition can be purely personal opinions or

feelings; it is private

• you have to develop the subject in depth

• you have to give something new or important to the subject

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• you have to give some facts and insights into the topic according to other people’s

researches

o contextualize it into the field

o include the sources, information, and research of other people

• objective

• acknowledge properly other people's ideas in your writing (direct and indirect

quoting)

• show clearly what are your own thoughts, conclusions, attitudes

• relate you own thoughts/opinions/attitudes with others' thoughts/

opinions/attitudes

THE GOOD SIDES?

• you learn more about the topic/field

• you learn how to evaluate other people’s work

• you learn how to make a dialogue

• you develop your own way of thinking (sharpening you thoughts)

• you learn the difference between what is objective/subjective

BAD SIDES

• more time needed

• more work needed

USING REFERENCES (LITERATURE)

o go to the library and ask about that topic

o go though books with title/subtitle that has something in relation with your topic

• first see the table of contents and introduction, than read some chapters that

look interesting

• you will soon notice the style and main ideas that the author is

communicating and which you can use it in your research

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• you do not have to read whole book just introduction and your chapter

(sometimes only one chapter in the book relates to your thesis)

o ask people who are from that field (you high school teacher) or have some interest

in that (friends, parents sometimes have more knowledge about some topic than we

assume) to give you some advice about the good literature or give their opinion (you

need that for dialogue, to sharpen your ideas and thoughts)

o when you read article/book , pay attention to the footnotes

• it can lead you to the other useful sources

• it shows the important books/people in the field and you have to mention

them (if you are writing about psychoanalyses you have to mention

Freud!)

o the internet

• only reliable addresses (edu., org.), not some private blogues,

• if you are not sure about the information, it is advisable to double check –

it is better to not include it than to put something unreliable

USING INFORMATION

o read everything connected to your topic

o choose information that are relevant for your thesis statement and that will help

you in supporting it

o choose information that oppose to your thesis – replying to that will help clear

your statement and give you more and better arguments (writing a research paper is

dialogue!)

o always take notes of books, authors, and pages you are going through because

you will not find it later or you will spend hours in searching it (especially internet

addresses that teachers like to check)

o make notes of interesting topics and ideas that are not related to this research

(maybe you will use it later in some other researches – learning is a all-compassing

and everlasting process)

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USING SOURCES

o QUOTATION

direct quotation

important information

incorporated in your text if fewer that 3 lines

enclosed in quotation marks

paraphrase

restatement of the source in about the same number of words shows that

you have understood the reading

make it simple

your own words but the same content

no quotation marks but you have to include the author, book and page

that you have paraphrased form

summarize

shorter restatement

omit any unnecessary information

no quotation marks but you have to include the author, book and page that you have paraphrased form

o plagiarism = lat. “kidnapper”

INTEGRATING BORROWED MATERIALS

• Presenting borrowed material

o Use a signal phrase to present your borrowing

o Write author's name

o Introduce it with the most appropriate verb

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Signal phrases:

Acknowledges, admits, agrees, argues, asserts, adds, advises, argues,

believe, claims, comments, compares, declares, defines, denies,

disputes, emphasizes, hints, hopes, illustrates, implies, indicates, notes,

objects, reports, responds, reveals, suggests, thinks, warns

o Present the quotation

o Document the borrowing – information about the source

In his article Smith emphasizes that “a woman living in the south has

always been perceived as less valuable than a man” (86).

• USING ELLIPSIS POINTS TO SIGNAL OMISSION

o Omission of less then a sentence - three evenly spaced periods

o Omission of more than a sentence – four evenly spaced periods

o Remaining word must stay grammatically complete

In his article Smith emphasizes that “a woman (. . .) living in the south has


In his article Smith emphasizes that “a woman living in the south (. . . .) has


• BRACKETS FOR INSERTIONS

o Used to insert your words into a quotation to explain it

Nature writer Wallace Stegner believes that “recreation could be as dangerous

[to wilderness areas] as logging or extractive use" (43).

• DRAFTING

owrite a first draft

ocool of the writing

o identify the status (type of essay, organizational principle, aim, goal and audience)

ochange a focus

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ocompare plan to results

• REVISING AND EDITING

• PROOFREADING

•

FINAL DRAFT

1.8. A BASIC 10 STEP RESEARCH STRATEGY

What is the difference(s) between an essay and a research paper?

ESSAY RESEARCH

- Personal - impersonal

- Subjective - objective

- Your own ideas, arguments, thoughts - others ideas, arguments

- No quotation - quotation

- Requires only thinking abut the topic - requires research

- Less time - more time

- Format - format

1. SELECT YOUR TOPIC

o State the topic as a question

o Identify what kind of information you need

2. CREATE A MIND MAP FOR YOUR TOPIC

o Brainstorm all possible keywords and concepts

3. FIND BACKGROUND INFORMATION

30



Encyclopedias, Dictionaries..

4. DETERMINE THE FOCUS OF YOUR TOPIC

o Focus

o working outline

o Thesis: what do you want to say/prove with your research?

5. FIND BOOKS AND PERIODICALS

o library

o Ask the librarian

o Look at the table of contents

o write down the author, title, edition and page number

6. FIND INFORMATION ON THE INTERNET

o Search engines

o use reliable sites (edu.)

o Also make sure that you get all the necessary information about the article so it

doesn’t get lost (author, title of the article, paragraph, web site, date when it was

posted, date of access)

7. EVALUATE WHAT YOU HAVE FOUND

o Author, qualifications

o Teacher/other people in that field

8. RECORD YOUR INFORMATION

o Gather all the information

o Highlight/Cut and paste

o Start creating your works cited section in alphabetical order

9. ORGANIZE YOUR NOTES AND CREATE A FINAL OUTLINE

o strategies of development (spatial, chronological, compare/contrast…)

31



o Write a synopsis

10. WRITE YOUR PAPER

o Write a rough draft - get your ideas on paper

o Revision - pay attention to style, transitions, mechanics

o Final copy - follow MLA guidelines

o Proof read - look for all possible errors (revisers checklist)

2. Mechanics

2.1 THE FORMAT

32



1. PAPER - always use a regular white A4 paper format

2. MARGINS - leave one-inch (2,5cm) all around the text of the paper – top,

bottom, left , and right

3. SPACING - double-space throughout the text

4. JUSTIFY the text on both sides

5. FONT - Times New Roman in a 12-point font size

6. COVER PAGE - should contain student's name and year of the study, instructor's name, name

of the course and date at the top of the paper, at the left-hand margin

7. TITLE - center the title above the text and capitalize the first, the last, and all principal words

of the title

- do not use quotation marks around the title or underline it

- do not use periods after the title

8. INDENTION – indent the first word of each paragraph ten spaces from the left margin

9. PAGING – always use Arabic numerals (without periods and parentheses) in the upper-hand

corner, one-half inch from the top, and type your surname before the page number

10. PAGE – one page of a text has 1800 characters including spaces

- word – tools – word count – characters with blank spaces

- the given number divide by 1800 and you will get the number of pages

- e.g. 6300 characters / 1800 = 3,5 cards11. OUTLINE – the cover page in a research paper is followed by an outline with divisions and

subdivisions; in the body of the paper, these divisions and subdivisions are also included

2.2. PUNCTUATION

1. THE PERIOD.

33



statements, mild commands, or indirect questions and with most abbreviations!

The piano played quietly in the background.

Please do not smoke.

Students sometimes wonder whether the teacher read the papers they write.

Ph.D.

2. THE QUESTION MARK?

a) after direct questions.

What is the difference between these two people?

b) doubt about the correctness of a number or date.

The Greek philosopher Socrates was born in 470 (?) B.C. and died in 399 B.C.

3. THE EXCLAMATION POINT!

emphatic statements, interjections, and strong commands.

No, we must not lose these elections!

Oh, no!

Stop!

4. THE COMMA,

a) to separate main clauses linked by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, or, so, but, yet)

The steering was stiff, but the car rode smoothly.

b) to set off most introductory/ transitional expressions

Fortunately, the ride would be comfortable.

As a result, we were not very tired.

c) to set off nonrestrictive elements

We dreaded the trip, which would take sixteen hours.

Our destination, Las Vegas, was unfamiliar to us.

d) to separate items in series

34



We would need a new home, new schools, and new friends.

- note that there is a comma in front of the last element

f) to separate coordinate adjectives

A bumpy, cramped road was unbearable.

g) use commas to prevent misreading.

Soon after, she left the town for good

h) use commas according to convention in dates, addresses, place names, and long numbers.

July 4, 1776, was the day the Declaration of Independence was signed.

Their anniversary on 15 December 1982 was their fiftieth.

Use the address 5543 Laurie Lane, Memphis, Tennessee, for all correspondence.

A kilometer is 3,281 feet (or 3281 feet).

Russia’s 8,649,490 square miles make it the largest country in the world.

5) THE SEMICOLON;

- separate main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction.

Directing movies was only one of his ambitions; he also wanted to direct theatrical

productions of Shakespeare’s plays.

6.) THE APOSTROPHE‘

a) Use the apostrophe with possessive nouns or indefinite pronouns

Park’s

b) with contractions

Won’t; shouldn’t, they’re…

c) with plurals of letters and numbers

60’s

A’s and B’s

35



7) QUOTATION MARKS “ ” / ‘’

1. double

a) use double quotation marks for direct quotation, that is what someone has said or

written in the exact words of the original.

According to Disraeli, Gladstone did not have “a single redeeming defect.”

Disraeli once said, “He [Gladstone] has not a single redeeming defect.”

b) and for minor titles – short stories, essays, short poems, songs, articles in periodicals,

and subdivisions of books.

Andrew A. Rooney’s Pieces of My Mind contains essays like

“Procrastination” and “The Power of Negative Thinking.”

In his poem “London” William Blake expressed…

c) use double quotation marks for a minor title appearing in a longer italicized title.

Modern Interpretations of “My Last Duchess”

d) ocassionally, double quotation marks may be used to enclose words in a special sense

A “normal”, healthy person…

2. single

a) use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

“Edgar Allan Poe’s ‘A Predicament’ is one of the funniest stories I have ever

read!”, Chet exclaimed.

3. no qoutation marks

a) no quotation marks are used for indirect quotation.

Claudia Miniken said that hill climbing is not so difficult when one has a good

friend.

8.) THE COLON:

Use the colon to introduce and to separate.

Two chief elements make the work interesting: first, the exrcise of skill, and

second, construction.

36



9.) THE DASH -

Use the dash to indicate sudden changes in tone or thought.

He tells us – does he really mean it – that he will speak the truth form now on.

The may be replaced with commas.

10) PARTENHESIS ( )

The populaton of Philadelphia (now about 1.7 million) has declined since 1950.

Then, my father arrived at two points in his life: (1) his last years, and (2) the

realization that he had made a tragic mistake.

In Hamlet Shakespeare presents the most famous soliloquy in the history of the

theatre: “To be, or not to be…” (3.1.56-89).

11.) BRACKETS [ ]

Disraeli once said, “He [Gladstone] has not a single redeeming defect.”

According to the newspaper report, “The car slammed thru [sic] the railing and

into the oncoming traffic.

12.) ELLIPSIS MARK . . .

a) three spaced periods when omitting less than one sentence

“But all these places . . . are so different from each other that one couldn’t help

thinking: this kind of talk was shorthand for confusion.”

b) four spaced periods (. . . .) when omitting one or more sentences

c) to indicate the omission of a full line or more in quoted poetry, use spaced periods

covering the length of the omitted line:

The hoary prince in majesty appeared,High on a throne of his own labors reared.

…………………………………………..

His brow thick fogs, instead of glories, grace,

And lambent dullness played around his face.

37



13.) THE SLASH /

a) use the slash between options

I do not know why some teachers oppose to fail/pass courses.

b) and to separate lines of poetry that run in to the text

The E. E. Cummings’s form of expression, such as in the lines “next to of course

god america i / love you land of the pilgrims”, …

c) to separate lines in verse plays

In Hamlet Shakespeare presents the most famous soliloquy in the history if theatre:

“To be, or not to be / that is the question . . . ( 3.1.56-89)

14.) SPECIAL EMPHASIS

- in order to emphasize some words in the research paper, the author may enclose some words

with quotation marks, underline, or bold (seldom) them

a) When authors want to emphasize their own words, they usually use quotation marks

"Subversive" drama is a line within contemporary American drama which shows

losers on stage.

b) When authors want to emphasize some words within a quote, they should put the parenthesis

explaining what kind of a change was made and provide the initial of the author

Davis argues that Nick "is a successful (underlined by P. P.) character".

38



2.3 MECHANICS

CAPITALS

- in titles and subtitles of books, plays, student papers and so on, capitalize the first and lastwords and all other nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives in the title.

Looking Back: A Chronicle of Growing Up Old in the Sixties

ITALICS

Italicize titles of books, plays, long poems, films, works of art, magazines, newspaper, TV

shows…

60 Minutes

Hamlet

USA Today

Verdi’s Aida…

- foreign words and phrases are also italicized in the context of an English sentence

The maxim of the French Revolution still echoes in our ears: liberte, egalite,

fraternite.

- use italics for emphasis

What are you doing?

- do not italicize parts of the Bible (Genesis, Revelation…) nor legal documents (Bill of

Rights)

ABBREVIATIONS

58 BC; AD 70; 8:00 a.m.; Washington D.C.; the U.S. Army

FBI, NYU, NBC, JFK, IQ, TV,

cf. (compare) et al. (and others)

ect. (and so forth) i.e. (that is)

39



e.g. (for example) vs. (versus)

ACRONYMS

Anti-satellite interceptor (ASAT) is a very important….

NUMBERS

Usually, spell out the numbers that can be expressed in one word or two and use figures

for all others but tend to be consistent.

after 124 years BUT after twenty-two years

o numbers are advisable when writing dates, addresses, pages of books or plays, large

round numbers, decimals…

o avoid numbers at the beginning of the sentence

TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Place the illustrative material as close as possible to the part of the text that it illustrates.

A table is usually labeled “Table”, given an arabic numeral, and captioned.

Table 1

Language Immersion Program of the State University ff New York

Language 1999 2001

American Sign 6 4

Italian 134 223

Russian 56 89

Source: Henry Urbansky, “The Language Immersion Program at New Paltz,” ADFL

Bulletin. New York: Little, 2003.

40



Any other type of illustrative material (a photograph, a map, line drawing, graph) should

be labeled “Figure” (usually abbreviated “Fig.”) assigned in arabic numeral, and given a title

or caption. Everything is placed under the illustration.

Fig. 1. Leslie Lowe, Flower, Washington Post , 2002.

Fig.2. Number of Environmental Education Methodology Courses

Taught by Institutions from Mastrilli, Johnson, and McDonald, Inclusion of Environmental Education in Pennsylvania Teacher

Preparation Curricula: A Survey of Elementary Pre-Service Teacher

Programs. <http://www.pcee.org>.

41



G) PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 3. Romeo i Julija. By William Shakespeare. Dir. Petar Veček. Perf. Zrinka Cvitešić. HNK

Zagreb. 2 Mar. 2002.

42



2.4 HOW TO QUOTE?

PROSE

1) long quotation

a) set off long quotes (longer then 3 lines) by indention one inch from the ledft hand margin b) introduce them with a colon (:)

c) double space them

d) do not use quotation marks

e) put a period at the end

f) state the author of the book (if not mentioned before the quote) and page number in the

brackets

Example:

Metal coins replaced bartering. Then paper money became more convenient to use then

metal coins not only because it is easy to handle but also because, as Certon and O’Tool say in

Encounters with the Future, it has other advantages:

Printing more zeroes is all it takes on a bill to increase its value. Careful engraving

makes it easy to recognize and difficult to counterfeit. The fact that private

individuals cannot create it at will keeps it sacre. Karl Marxs once said that paper

money was valued “only insofar as it represents gold” but that may never have

been true. (188)

2. short quotation

a) incorporate them in your text and enclose in quotation marks

b) put authors name and page number in the parenthesis

c) put the period at the end

Example:

Thoreau’s Walden is one of the”ten books that shaped America” (Yardley 24).

43



POETRY

1) long quotation

a) set off long quotes (longer then 3 lines) by indention fpr one inch form the left-hand

margin

b) introduce them with a colon (:)




f) state the author of the book (if not mentioned before the quote) and number of verse in the

parenthesis

Example:

In “London” William Blake expressed his horror of institutional callousness:

How the Chimney sweeper’s cry

Every blackning Church Appals;

And the hapless Soldier’s sigh

Runs in blood down Palace walls. (9-12)

2. short quotation


b) a slash with a space on each side indicates the divisions between the lines

Example:

When in “Mr. Flood’s Party” the hero sets down to jug his feet, “as a mother lays her

sleeping child / Down tenderly, fearing it may awake,” one feels Robinson’s heart to be quite

simply on his sleeve.

44



DRAMA

1) long quotation

a) set off long quotes (longer then 3 lines) by indention for one inch

b) introduce them with a colon (:)




f) use the upper case for name of the character, followed by a colon

g) indent the name of the character by ten spaces and all other lines should be indented

additional three spaces below characters name

h) for verse plays, state the author of the play (if not mentioned before the quote) followed

by act, scene, and number of lines in the parenthesis

i) for modern plays state the author of the play (if not mentioned before the quote)

followed by page number

Example for a verse play:

By the end of the 16th century, Shakespeare wrote Richard III , a play of a lame,

disfigured character whose body manifests all the greed and evilness of his heart and soul:

GLOUCESTER: I, that am curtail’d of this fair proportion,

Cheated of feature by dissembling nature,

Deformed, unfinish’d, sent before my time

Into this breathing world, scarce half made up,

And that so lamely and unfashionable

That dogs bark at me when I halt by them; (1.1.18-23)

45



Example for a modern play:

How great a handicap pity can be is familiar to Don in Butterflies Are Free. He does not

want to be pitied because he does not admit that blindness is a reason for pity:

DON: Listen, the one thing that drives me up the wall is pity. I don’t want

and I don’t need it. Please-don’t feel sorry for me. I don’t feel sorry for

me, so why should you? (Gershe 15)

2. short quotation


b) a slash with a space on each side indicates the divisions between the lines

c) put act, scene and number of lines in the brackets

d) a period comes after the parenthesis

Example:

In Hamlet Shakespeare presents the most famous soliloquy in the history of the

theatre: “To be, or not to be…” (3.1.56-89).

46



2.5. HOW TO CREATE WORKS CITED LIST?

BOOKS:

ONE AUTHOR

Author (last name, first name). Title of Book . City of Publication: Publisher, Year.

Shakespeare, William. Richard III. London: Penguin Books, 1969.

TWO OR MORE AUTHORS

- list the names in the order the appear on the title page

- only the first author's name should be reversed (last name, first name)

- use commas between author's names

- if there are more then three authors, name only the first and add et al.

Rowe, Richard, and John Juffus. Our Civic Duty. New York: Bookrags, 1998.

TWO OR MORE BOOKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR

- in this case, give the name only in the first entry

- for the next entry, type three hyphens, add a period and skip a space (---. ) then give the title

- the hyphens stand for the name in the first entry

Scott, Susan. Exploring the Bay. London: Qxford University Press, 1987.

---. Animals in the Bay. London: Oxford University Press, 1997.

SECOND AND OTHER EDITION

Author (last name, first name). Title of Book . Edition. City of Publication: Publisher,

1967.

Huber, Michael. Marine Biology. 5th edition. London: Oxford University Press,

1967.

EDITOR OR COMPILER

- if the person is an editor or a compiler, rather than the author, add a comma and then the

abbreviation «ed.» or «comp.»

Carpenter, Allan, ed. Facts About the Cities. New York: Wilson, 1992

47



CORPORATE AUTHOR

Public Agenda Foundation. The Health Care Crisis: Containing Costs, Expanding

Coverage. New York: McGraw, 1992.

BOOK IN AN ANTHOLOGY

Malouf, David. "The Kyogle Line." The Oxford Book of Travel Stories. Ed. Patricia Craig.

Oxford: Oxford UP, 1996.

ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE BOOK

Coulter, Ellis Merton. "John Adair." Dictionary of American Biography. Ed. Allen

Johnson. Vol. 1. New York: Scribner's Sons, 1964.

GOVERNMENT AGENCY AS AUTHOR

Name of Government. Name of Agency. Title. Number of Congress. Number of

Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication

United States. Census Bureau. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2004-05.

124th ed. Washington, DC: GPO, 2004.

ENCYCLOPEDIA:

Author of Article (if given). „Article title.“ Title of Book. City of Publication: Publisher,Year.

ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLE, SIGNED

Epps, Helen H.. "Textiles." World Book Encyclopedia. 2003 ed.

48



ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLE or DICTIONARY ENTRY, UNSIGNED

"Onomatopoeia." Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 11th ed. 2003.

ARTICLE:

- give complete dates for weekly magazine in this order: d.d. mm yy

- abbreviate the months

ARTICLE FROM A MONTHLY MAGAZINE

Hitchens, Christopher. "A Breath of Dust." Atlantic Monthly Jul-Aug 2005: 142- 46.

ARTICLE FROM A WEEKLY MAGAZINE

Boyce, Nell. "A Law's Fetal Flaw." U.S. News and World Report 21 July 2003: 49-51.

WEB SITES:

- sometimes the complete publication information is not available foe a Web site; provide

what it is given

ENTIRE INTERNET SITE. SCHOLARY PROJECT OR PROFESSIONAL SITE

Title of the Site. Editor. Date and/or Version Number. Name of Sponsoring institution.

Date of Access <url>.

Encyclopedia Myhica. 2204. 13 May 2004 <http://pantheon.org/>.

DOCUMENT FROM A WEB SITE

Author. „Title of Web Page.“ Title of the Site. Editor. Date. Name of sponsoringInstitution. Date of Access <url>.

Sutton, Bettye, et al. "1800-1810." 19th Century Cultural History. Ed. Peggy

Whitley. 2003. Kingwood College Library, Kingwood, TX. 28 July 2005

<http://kclibrary.nhmccd.edu/19thcentury1800.htm>.

49

http://pantheon.org/

http://pantheon.org/



NO AUTHOR

Dutch Recipes. 9 Jun. 1998. 16 Sept. 2003.

<http://www.fortunecity.com/victorian/verona/190/eten.htm>.

AUTHOR, NO DATE

Dawe, James. The Jane Austen Page. 16 Sept. 2003

<http://jamesdawe.com/austen.html>.

FILM OR VIDEOTAPE

The English Patient. Dir. Anthony Minghella. Perf. Ralph Finnnes, Juliette Binoche, William

Defpr, and Christian Scott Thomas. Mirimax, 1996.

LIVE PERFORMANCE OF A PLAY

Six Characters in Search of an Author . By Luigi Pirandello. Dor. Robert Brustein. Perf. Jeremy

Geidt, David Ackroyd, Monoca Koskey, ana Marianne Owen. American Repertory

Theatre, Cambridge. 14 Jan. 1997.

50



COVER PAGE FOR A RESEARCH PAPER

J. J. Strossmayer University in Osijek

Faculty of Philosophy

Blanche and Stella as Two Types of Southern Belle in

Tennessee Williams' A Streetcar Named Desire

Perica Perić

Essay Writing, 3rd year

Sanja Runtić, PhD..

May 5, 2007

51



SYNOPSIS AND OUTLINE FORMAT

2. Name of the student:

Course:

Professor:

Date:

Title: Stella and Blanche as Two Types of Southern Belle…

SYNOPSIS

..................................................................................

................................................................................

................................................................................

OUTLINE

1. Introduction1.1. ……..1.2. …….

2. ………..

2.1. ……….2.2. ………2.3. ………

3. ……….3.1. …….3.2. …….

4. Conclusion5. Works Cited

52



3. EXERCISES FOR THE ESSAY WRITINGCOURSE

53



BASIC STRUCTURE EXERCISE

Look at the following essay and identify the basic structure. Also, state which

sentences express main ideas of the essay and which sentences only support it!

Perica Perić

Sanja Runtić, PhD.

Essay Writing

5 October, 2007

A Cat is Man’s Best Friend

"A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs are

not the only animal friend whose companionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their

best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent house pets.

In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are affectionate.

They will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the chin. Who can resist a purring

cat? If they're not feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They love to chase balls

and feathers, or just about anything dangling from a string. They especially enjoy playing when

their owners are participating in the game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be trained. Using

rewards and punishments, just like with a dog, a cat can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior or

perform tricks. Cats will even fetch!

In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs, cats do not

bark or make other loud noises. Most cats don't even meow very often. They generally lead a

quiet existence. Cats also don't often have "accidents." Mother cats train their kittens to use the

litter box, and most cats will use it without fail from that time on. Even stray cats usually

understand the concept when shown the box and will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and

54



owners must make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a favorite cat area of the house will

often keep the cat content to leave the furniture alone. As a last resort, of course, cats can be

declawed.

Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as house pets is their ease of care. Cats

do not have to be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as they play, and they do their

business in the litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure. Cats also take care

of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost never necessary because under ordinary

circumstances cats clean themselves. Cats are more particular about personal cleanliness than

people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for a few hours without fear. Unlike some

pets, most cats will not destroy the furnishings when left alone. They are content to go about their

usual activities until their owners return.

Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have small living quarters or

less time for pet care should appreciate these characteristics of cats. However, many people who

have plenty of space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat personality. In

many ways, cats are the ideal housepet.

55



MECHANICS II EXERCISES

Correct any faulty capitalization, italics, abbreviations, and numbers in thefollowing sentences. Be prepared to explain your choice. Note that some of thesentences are correct.

1. I can't remember who wrote The sound and the fury.

2. Senator Hilary Clinton is running for the president of the United states.

3. Although Rushid is a Moslem, he is very knowledgeable about the bible, especially the

old testament.

4. Colson, the doctor, knew his medicine, but his manner made his patients nervous.

5. African-americans do not like to be called Blacks.

6. My favorite pieces of art are Michelangelo's David and da Vinci's Mona Lisa.

7. The director warned the writer that the screenplay for Ophelia in Love had better be

finished happily.

8. Both the New Testament and the Old Testament of the Bible offer profound lessons in

human nature.

9. San Francisco's major newspapers are the Chronicle and the Examiner.

10. The essay contains many puns and jeux de mots.

11. One prof. spent 5 hrs. reading from the handbook.

12. Mount Vesuvius erupted in anno domini 79 and buried Pompeii.

13. The dog is thirty in. high but it can dig a six ft. deep hole.

14. The speed limit on that road is 75 miles per hour.

15. Prof. Abbott has office hrs. on Tues., Wed., and Thur. in the A.M.

16. I lost a trivia game because I forgot that sixteen hundred Pennsylvania Avenue is the

White House.

17. Not until page ninety-nine, in the middle of the Chapter five does the author introduce the

main character.

18. Carol paid one hundred and forty-five dollars for a bridesmaid's dress.

19. She got up at two o'clock and her brother at 2.30 in the afternoon.

20. 103 of the opening-night audience asked for the refund.

56



EXCERCISES FOR PARAGRAPH

I.

The following paragraph does not support the central idea. Identify the topicsentence and delete any irrelevant material.

Most people don't realize how difficult it is to work and go to school at the same time. If youwant to make good grades but you need to pay your own way, the burdens are tremendous. Iwork in an office sixteen hours a week. Each term I have to work out a tight schedule that will letme take the courses I want and still be at work when I’m needed. I like the job. The people thereare pleasant and they are eager to help me learn. In the end my job will be good training for thekind of managerial position I hope to have some day, because I’m gaining useful experience inoffice procedures and working with people. It’s hard for me to have a job and go to school, butwhen I graduate both will make me more employable.

II.

Revise the sentences and add transitional phrases in the following paragraph sothe thought flows smoothly from one sentence to the next.

Cable television sounds like a good idea at first. All available local channels can be piped into atelevision set for a relatively low cost per month. The reception is clear – a real bonus in fringeand rural areas. Several channels for news and local access are in the basic monthly fee. A cableconnection to the second or third TV set costs extra. In most places subscribers have to pay as

much as thirty dollars a month extra to get the channels like HBO and The Disney Channel. Themovies change each month. Many of the movies offered each month are office flops or reruns of old movies that can be viewed on regular channels. Cable television isn’t really a bargain.

III.

Write a well-developed paragraph with one of the following ideas or an idea of your own. Make sure that your paragraph is unified and coherent as well asadequately developed with specific information.

1. why you like (or don't like) poetry2. an unusual person you know3. a place where you feel comfortable

57



EXERCISES FOR COMPOSITION

1. Look at the following topics and explain how you could treat each (1) asexpressive writing, (2) as expository writing, (3) as persuasive writing.

a. Why a foreign language should be required in collegeb. The place where I feel most relaxedc. How to find a trusty automobile mechanic

2. Write the main idea and brainstorm about the topic “Abortion”!

3. Write a sketch outline about the topic!

58



FALLACIES EXERCISES

I. The following sentences exemplify the most common fallacies. Determinewhat is wrong with each sentence and then revise it to make it more logical.

1. A successful marriage demands maturity that no one under twenty-five possesses.

2. Students’ persistent complaints about the grading system prove that it is unfair.

3. The United States got involved in World War II because the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor.

4. People watch television because they are too lazy to talk or read or because they want a

mindless escape from their lives.

5. Working people are slaves to their corporate masters: they have no freedom to do what they

want, and they can be traded to other companies.6. Mountain climbing is more dangerous than people think: my cousin has fainted three times

since she climbed Pikes Peaks.

7. Racial tension is bound to occur when people with different backgrounds are forced to live

side by side.

8. If the United States does not supply military assistance to Central and South American

countries, we will eventually be subjected to Communism.

9. She admits to being an atheist, so how can she be a good philosophy teacher.

10. Why can't I buy a car? All my friends have them.

11. He frowns all the time, so he must be sick.

12. There are only two kinds of politicians: those interested in their own welfare and those

interested in the welfare of the people.

13. These razor blades give the smoothest shave; all the baseball players use them.

14. Bill is the most popular boy in the class. You should vote for him for president.

15. Mary missed class twice last week. She must have been sick.

16. She's a woman, so she's no good at math.

17. Our jails are full because a lot of people do not have enough money to buy necessities.

18. If you walk self-confidently, you probably will not get mugged.

19. A person who cannot spell should not become a journalist.

20. Women will vote for him because he is good-looking.

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II.Evaluate the following brief essay for its effectiveness in persuading you toaccept the writer's argument. Look especially for sound or unsound inductive or deductive reasoning, begging or ignored questions, overstated assumptions,

and fallacies.

Let's Hear It for Asphalt

The truly disadvantaged students on this campus are the commuters. We pay our money

and work hard for our degrees, yet we can never find places to park our cars. Commuters are

regularly treated as second-class citizens with resident students. But nowhere is the discrepancy

more noticeable than in the parking situation.

The fact is that there aren't enough parking spaces for half cars on the campus. Studentsare lucky to make their classes at all after driving around for hours looking for a place to stop

their car. If parking were easier, students would get better grades, and the school administrators

would probably have the higher enrollment they're so desperate for.

The most maddening thing is that we have to pay good money for parking tickets on top

of tuition and everything else. The money probably goes towards the new faculty office building

or dormitory or one of the other building projects that eat up what little parking space there is.

Meanwhile, we commuters are pushed farther away from the center of the campus. But then why

should the rich folks in charge of things care what happens to few struggling students, some with

families to support, who seek to better themselves.

The commuting students are like Jews wandering in the wilderness. We need homeland

for our cars and freedom from persecution by campus cops.

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STYLE EXCERCISES

I. Revise each sentence to eliminate excessive detail.1. At last I returned the book that I had used for the report which I had on Tuesday to the

library.2. A course in business methods helps undergraduates to get jobs and in addition helps them

to find out whether they are fitted for business and thus to avoid postponing the crucialtest, as so many do, until it is too late.

II. Revise each sentence to eliminate mixed metaphor, faulty predication, andawkward definitions!

1. For Don, money does grow on trees, and it also goes down the drain quickly.2. Unlike a fact, a judgment is when you express personal opinions.3. Like a bat guided by radar, Jane was always surefooted in her business tasks.

4. I felt like a grain of sand crying out in the wilderness.

III. Circle each misplaced modifier; draw an arrow to show its proper position.1. The explosion only killed one person.2. The new computer program nearly cost a hundred dollars.3. He even daydreams when you talk to him about salary.4. Bruce polished his new car almost until he could see his face in it.

IV. Revise the sentences to eliminate needless separation of related sentence

parts.1. Bill failed to, because he was sleepy, lock the back door.2. John promised when he was going to the store to pick up some milk.3. The puppy advertised in the last night's paper which is already nine weeks old is a

registered retriever.

V. Revise the sentences to eliminate dangling modifiers.1. Once mixed, you must freeze the ingredients within the hour.2. Ready to camp, the windstorm hit.3. By standing and repeating the pledge, the meeting came to an end.

VI. Correct all needles shifts in tense, person, and number.1. Before the game began, Karl comes over to our seats and asked us to wait for him later.2. Every witness was questioned, and they were taken to police station.3. If Lou really likes someone, he would make any sacrifice for them.4. The exercise is good because stress is reduced and the body is strengthened.

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STYLE AND DICTION EXERCISES

I. The italicized words are wrong, inexact, or ambiguous. Replace such wordswith the exact ones.

1. The faculty was concerned about the affects of the new admission standards.2. My father's curly hair and dimples give him a childish appearance.

II. Revise each sentence to eliminate tautology, delete unnecessary words,and needles repetition.

1. The exact date has been set and it is unknown to us.2. Long lines of starving refugees in need for food were helped by the Red Cross volunteer

people.

3. Perhaps maybe the chief reason or cause for obesity in people who are overweight is lack of exercise.

4. The tall skyscraper buildings form a dark silhouette against the evening sky.5. It seems to me to be obvious.6. Because of the fact that Larry was there, the party was lively.7. Other things being equal, it is my opinion that all of these oil slicks, whether they are

massive or not so big, do damage to the environment to a greater or a lesser degree.8. A few of the listeners who had become angry called in so that they would have the

opportunity of refuting the arguments set forth by Ian.9. These hazards are not visible, and they cause accidents, many of which are fatal ones.10. The United States was being invaded. What I mean by that is a takeover of land. Foreign

investors were buying up farms.11. In spite of the fact that my parents did not approve of it, I was married to Evelyn last

June.12. The manager returned the application back because of illegible handwriting that he could

not read.13. In this day and time, it is difficult today to find in the field of science a chemist who

shows as much promise for the future as Joseph Blake shows.14. From time to time during one's life, one needs to remember that one who is learning to

walk has to put one foot before the other one.15. When the fans in the stadium shout and yell, the shouting and yelling is deafening, and so

the total effect of all this is that is a contributing factor in decisions to stay home and

watch the games on TV.16. A distant hurricane or a seaquake can cause a tidal wave. This wave can form when either

occurs.17. A comedy of intrigue (or a situation comedy) is a comedy that relies on action instead of

characterization for its comedy.18. In my family, schoolwork came first, horse came second, fun and games came next, and

discussions came last.

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19. Numerous products can be made form tobacco. The nicotine form this plant is used in pesticides. A sugar extracted from tobacco helps control blood pressure.

UNBIASED LANGUAGE EXERCISE

AVOID USE

mankind

businessman

chairman

cleaning lady

clergyman

congressman

forefather

postman

policeman

stewardess

weatherman

o RACE, ETHNICITY, NATIONAL ORIGIN

Negro, colored

Oriental

Indian

Eskimo

native

o AGE

elderly, aged, old,

the elderly, the aged

o PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES OR ILLNESS/ SPECIAL NEEDS PEOPLE

Mongoloid

AIDS victim

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33. Maybe this is so because people forget what was it they promised in the church beforeGod.

34. I must say that the fact that serious doctors are even considering of attempting to clonehuman beings, left me speechless.

CITATION EXERCISES

In each case I have tried to show that all the action in a "Jamesian novel" may be

taken as a result of philosophical differences of opinion among the principal

characters, and that these differences in turn are explainable by reference to the

characters' differing social background.

- Frederic C. Crew's The Tragedy of Manners: Moral Drama in the Later

Novels of Henry James, p. 8

1. Quote it directly!

2. Paraphrase it!

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many public schools bear a closer resemblance to factories than to educational institutions. InHall's words, "Bureaucracies have no soul, no memory, and no conscience."

OUTLINE EXERCISE

Make an outline to match the essay!

Pro-Choice

When it comes to deciding on the question of abortion, there have always been two

opposite and, in advocating their own opinion, very passionate sides. Those sides can be roughly

and yet accurately described by their names: pro-life and pro-choice. The public has been

bombarded with their debates, especially since Roe v. Wade in 1973, when abortion was

legalized in the US. Many questions have been raised, and even more arguments given. So why is

this such an important question? Because it involves constitutional rights, the freedom to choose

and have control over one’s body, and subsequently life. When all the arguments are tested and

verified, the only conclusion is that abortion should be legal, and the many arguments to support

the pro-choice point of view can be generally classified in three categories: legal issues; social

issues, and difficult cases.

When it comes to legal issues there are two main questions. First, is the embryo a human

being? Undeniably, the embryo has the potential of becoming one, but it is not an actual person

yet. The fetus is neither autonomous nor self-sufficient; it completely depends on the mother – it

is physically attached to her through the placenta and the umbilical cord, and thus it cannot be

regarded as a separate human being, but as a part of the woman’s body. That is why abortion

cannot be considered as murder, and on the other hand, no one can be expected to donate their

body to harbor another future life if they do not want to. The second important question is

whether the woman has the right to single-handedly decide to have an abortion? Do the rights of

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the fetus prevail over the mother’s? Margaret Sanger, an American birth control activist, said:

“No woman can call herself free who does not own and control her own body.” which is a

fundamental concept for women. On the other hand, when it comes to the father’s right to veto

abortion, the American Supreme Court decided in 1976 that when a wife and husband disagree,

since only one view can prevail, it should be hers, because she physically bears the fetus and is

directly affected by the pregnancy.

Next, the social issues category can be divided into two segments: quality of parenthood

and quality of life, and health. Since a large number of unwanted pregnancies happens to young

girls, often teenagers, and most of the times the fathers are not willing to participate, there is a

situation where a child is responsible for bringing up a child. This raises serious doubts in the

capabilities of those young girls, and in the quality of parenthood the child will get. In addition,

young parents often do not have a large or steady income, so in the best case they are on the

verge of being poor, and in the worst they have to struggle for survival. Furthermore, if it is

discovered during the pregnancy that the fetus is damaged or unhealthy, the option of aborting

should be available. Every parent has the right to spare their child of a whole life of suffering,

and the right to try again for a healthy baby. Similarly, the pregnancy can pose a threat to the

woman, whether it is a danger to her health or even life. In that case a woman cannot be forced to

carry out the pregnancy on the cost of her own health or life.

Finally, there is the question of difficult cases. If a woman is raped she absolutely has to

have the option to abort. Of course, one might say that the criminal here is the man who raped

her, so why should the fetus pay the price? But the woman is the victim too, and she must not be

forced to bear the child of a monstrous crime that happened to her, and to live with a reminder

every day for the rest of her life. Equally important, and equally heinous, is the case of a woman

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being a victim of incest, in which case, again, she absolutely must have the possibility of

abortion. The argument that the perpetrator should be prosecuted, and the victim should accept

the pregnancy as a good thing that has come out of something bad, is rather revolting and

sickening.

Certainly, this is a very complex question, especially because there are many interest

groups, which want to impose their opinion and make a law out of it. This is also too difficult an

issue for people to be guided, or rather misguided, by dogmatist church doctrines. Indeed, there

are arguments both for pro-life and pro-choice option, and all the arguments and counter-

arguments may be first-class, but what it all comes down to is that every case is individual. Every

woman has her own reasons for deciding to have or not have an abortion, and after she evaluates

all the pros and cons, she will make the right decision for herself. And that is precisely why

abortion must be legal: there always has to be a choice.

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4. REFERENCES:

Fowler, H.Ramsey and Aaron, Jane E., The Little Brown Handbook . 4th edition. Glenview:

Scott, Foresman and Campany. 1989.

Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook For Writers Of Research Papers. 6th edition. New York: The

Modern Language Association of America, 2003.

Hashimoto, Irvin Y. et al. Strategies for Academic Writing. Michigan: The University of

Michigan Press. 1985.

Hodges, John C. et al., eds. Harbrace College Handbook . 11th ed. Chicago: Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich, Inc. 1990.

mla student guidelines 2009

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