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Assessing the role of humour in Indian advertisements 1
CHAPTER 1:
INDUSTRY
PROFILE
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1) INDUSTRY PROFILE:
The Indian advertising industry is talking business today. It has evolved from being
a small-scale business to a full-fledged industry. It has emerged as one of the major
industries and tertiary sectors and has broadened its horizons be it the creative aspect,
the capital employed or the number of personnel involved. Indian advertising industry
in very little time has carved a niche for itself and placed itself on the global map.
Indian advertising industry with an estimated value of Rs.23, 200-crore has made jaws
drop and set eyeballs gazing with some astonishing pieces of work that it has given in
the recent past. The creative minds that the Indian advertising industry incorporates
have come up with some mind-boggling concepts and work that can be termed as
masterpieces in the field of advertising. The Indian advertising industry is expected to
grow 61% by 2010 (with advertising spend climbing to Rs. 36,731 crore)
Indian economy is on a boom and the market is on a continuous trail of expansion.
With the market gaining grounds Indian advertising has every reason to celebrate.
Businesses are looking up to advertising as a tool to cash in on lucrative business
opportunities. Growth in business has lead to a consecutive boom in the advertising
industry as well.
The Indian advertising today handles both national and international projects. This is
primarily because of the reason that the industry offers a host of functions to its
clients that include everything from start to finish that include client servicing, media
planning, media buying, creative conceptualization, pre and post campaign analysis,
market research, marketing, branding, andpublic relation services.
Keeping in mind the current pace at which the Indian advertising industry is moving
the industry is expected to witness a major boom in the times ahead. If the experts are
to be believed then the industry in the coming times will form a major contribution to
the GDP. With all this there is definitely no looking back for the Indian advertising
industry that is all set to win accolades from the world over.
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Key factors which have contributed to growth of the Indian advertising industry are:
Rapid economic growth of the country on the back of economic liberalization and
deregulation
Increase in consumer prosperity
Entry of global consumer companies with large advertising budgets
High degree of competitive intensity among consumer companies
Growth in media vehicles leading to increase in media penetration
PricewaterhouseCoopers in its Indian entertainment and media outlook 2009" report
has estimated that the Indian Entertainment & Media industry will return to double
digit growth in 2010. Indias E&M industry witnessed remarkable growth in recentyears having consistently outpaced growth in domestic GDP. While annual average
growth in nominal GDP was 14.48% over the period 2004-08, overall E&M growth in
2008 slowed, reflecting weaker economic conditions. This continued in 2009.
After registering a growth of around 16.6% compounded annually over the period
2004-08, growth in the E&M industry in 2009 decelerated to 8.0%. This has largely
been influenced by a marked slowdown in advertising spending, which has touched
9.2% in 2009 after having posting a CAGR of close to 17.3% during 2004-08.
Growth rates will increase in 2010 to 10.4% as economic conditions are expected to
gradually improve. For the remaining years of the forecast period, the industry will
continue to grow at increasing rates, resulting in the overall compound annual growth
rate for the period 2009-13 of 10.5%. Advertising revenues in the second half of the
year are set to grow more than 65 percent, says a study.
The industry logged just Rs.7,452 crore in January 1-June 30 2009, a whopping
Rs.1,414 crore less than what it made in the same period in 2008, according to the
review of the Pitch Madison Media advertising outlook 2009.
However, things may be looking up for the media industry. Our analysis for the July-
December period showed that while the media industry earned only Rs.7,452 crore in
the first half, the industry has net Rs.12,325 crore in the second half. And this is a
massive 65 percent jump over the first half, said Madison Media chairman Sam
Balsara.
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Assessing the role of humour in Indian advertisements 4
However, this handsome growth, driven by an increase in ad rates and volumes, will
not be enough to offset the slump experienced by the industry in the first six months.
There was a negative growth of 5 percent for the full year. The industry was
projected to close calendar year 2009 with Rs.19,777 crore against Rs.20,717 crore in
2008, said Amit Agnihotri, exchange4media group co-founder and editor of Pitch
magazine.
During January-June, the print media saw advertising revenues plummet 32 percent,
while television saw a 19 percent drop.
Cinema and outdoor advertising took a greater hit at 37 percent and 30 percent
respectively. There was only a moderate decline of five percent in ad revenues ofradio stations.
However, the internet media is the only format that recorded a growth during the first
half, logging a 16 percent growth.
Surge in branding and marketing activities will push advertising expenditures in India
to 0.55 per cent of the country's gross domestic product by 2010 from the current 0.52
per cent, industry chamber Assocham said. A research conducted on the future of
advertising in India by the industry body revealed that the ad-spending in the country
was continuously increasing ever-since the economy had opened up and the sector
was growing at a rate of more than 22 per cent per annum.
The sector was expected to cross Rs 16,000 crore in the current fiscal with ample
scope for growing further, the Chamber said. Advertising expenditure in developing
nations has been growing despite the limited size of the markets in these countries and
still has potential, Assocham said. Developed nations, on the other hand, spend
anywhere between 0.8 per cent to over one per cent of their GDP on advertising.
The US spends nearly 1.3 per cent of its GDP on advertising, while ad-spend
percentage in various parts of Europe and south east Asia is constantly increase, the
Chamber said.
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1.1) Outlook of major segments of the Indian E&M Industry:
Television industry is projected to continue to be the major contributor to the overall
industry revenue pie and is estimated to grow at a stable rate of 11.4% cumulatively
over the next five years, from an estimated Rs. 244.7 billion in 2008. The overall
television industry is projected to reach Rs. 420.0 billion by 2013. In the Television
pie, television distribution is projected to garner a share of 60% in 2013. On the other
hand, television advertising industry is projected to command a share of 41.0% in
2013, having increased from a present share of 39.0% in the total ad industry pie. The
relative share of the television content industry is expected to remain constant at 4%.
Film industry is projected to grow at a CAGR of 11.6% over the next five years,
reaching to Rs. 185 billion in 2013 from the present Rs. 107 billion in 2008. The
relative shares of the film industry are expected to shift marginally from the
traditional revenues to the new emerging revenues.
Print media industry is projected to grow by 5.6% over the period 2009-13, reaching
to Rs.213 billion in 2013 from the present Rs. 162 billion in 2008. The relative shares
of newspaper publishing and magazine publishing are not expected to change
significantly and are expected to remain the same at around 87% in favor of
newspaper publishing. Magazine publishing is expected to grow at a higher rate of
6.5% as compared with newspaper publishing which is expected to grow at 5.6% for
the next 5 years.
Radio advertising industry is projected to grow at a CAGR of 18% over 2009-13,
reaching Rs. 19 billion in 2013 from the present Rs. 8.3 billion in 2008; more than
double its present size. In terms of share of ad pie, it is projected that the radio
advertising industry will be able to increase its share from 3.8% to 5.2% in the next
five years.
Emerging segments, the key growth driver for the music industry over the next five
years will be digital music, and its share is expected to move from 16% in 2008 to
60% in 2013. Within digital music, mobile music will continue to increase its share
and maintain its dominance.
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Given the trends of increased internet usage, internet advertising is projected to grow
by 32% over the next five years and reach an estimated Rs. 20 billion in 2013 from
the present Rs. 5 billion in 2008. The share of the online advertising too is projected
to grow from 2.3% in 2008 to 5.5% in 2013 of the overall advertising pie.
The estimated size of Out of home (OOH) advertising spend is Rs 15 billion in 2008,
which is projected to become almost twice its current size in 2013 (i.e., Rs 25 billion).
Its share in the total ad pie is expected to go down marginally to 6.8% in 2013 from a
current level of 6.9% in 2008.
Animation, gaming and VFX industry will continue to maintain its growth pace and is
projected to grow at a CAGR of 22% to Rs. 42.5 billion in 2013 from its current sizeof Rs. 15.6 billion. In the animation space, domestic demand will create the fillip in
its growth, as well as contribution from international co-productions, in the film and
television space.
1.2) Outlook of Indian Advertising spending (2009-13):
Owing to the economic slowdown, the growth in advertising spending has slowedafter a period of robust growth. In 2008, overall advertising spending recorded a
growth of 11.3%, over the previous year which is much lower than the growth rate of
20.7% in the earlier year. Overall spending expected to increase from the present size
of Rs. 216 billion in 2008, to Rs. 366 billion in 2013 (a cumulative growth of 11.1%
on an overall basis).
As per report by ZenithOptiMedia, Expect advertising expenditure in India to
increase from 0.50% of the gross domestic product (GDP) to 0.53% over the next
three years, Worldwide, the ad industry is expected to grow 6.7% to reach $61
billion and Internet advertising is expected to surpass magazine advertising; and the
upswing was triggered by quadrennial events like Olympics, US elections and Euro
2008. As far as Indian market is concerned:
Internet advertising contributes 1.8 %of the countrys total advertising spends.
Internet medium is set to witness 150 per cent growth in 2008.
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Assessing the role of humour in Indian advertisements 7
For every hundred rupees spent by advertisers, Rs 91 is spent on television and the
print media while the outdoor media accounts for Rs 5. The rest is divided between
cinema, radio and the Internet. (The Indian entertainment industry too is expected to
grow by CAGR of 18% to reach Rs. 1 trillion numbers by 2011).
1.3) Indias advertising expenditure and GDP:
Table 1.1: Indias advertising expenditure and GDP
The Indian advertising industry comprises establishments that create and sell
advertisements for media such as newspapers, periodicals, radio, and television. It has
been evolving at a fast pace over the past few years owing to the proliferation of
means of communication and the emergence of new distribution channels. Currently
India has a low advertising spend as compared to other economies. Competition for
the outsourcing business and creativity leakage is a major issue confronting the
industry.
However, the television advertising is expected to register high rates of growth, with
India expected to become Asias leading cable market by 2010. Today in India, the
scope for advertising has progressed considerably although the Indian advertising
spends as a percentage of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is still as low as 0.34%
as opposed to other developed and developing countries.
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YearGDP( constant price)
In 000 crores (rs.)
GDP( current price)
In 000 crores (rs.)
Current advertising
expenditurein 000 crore rs.
2004 2602.065 3149.407 14.02992005 2844.942 3586.743 16.1766
2006 3120.029 4129.173 20.7095
2007 3402.716 4723.4 23.965
2008 3993.5 5279.6 27.945
2009 3702.3 5167.9 32.8457
http://www.pluggd.in/2007/07/indian-entertainment-industry-all-sethtmlhttp://www.pluggd.in/2007/07/indian-entertainment-industry-all-sethtml -
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Figure 1.1: Advertising expenditure as a percentage of GDP
Advertising revenues are vital for the growth of Entertainment and Media (E&M)
industry in India. These low ad spends are an immense potential for growth. This can
be seen through the development of so many new mediums of advertising in recent
years. Current advertising revenues are about 200 billion for 2009.
Figure 1.2: Share of advertising spending by medium
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1.4) PEST analysis:
1.4.1) Political factors:
Review of advertising code: In recent years the quantity of false, misleading and
offensive advertising has resulted in consumers having an increasing disbelief in
advertising, and a growing resentment of it. Misleading, false advertising also
constitutes unfair competition. It could lead to market-place disaster or even
litigation. If this kind of advertising continues, it wont be long before statutory
regulations and procedures are imposed which make even fair, truthful, decent
advertising cumbersome if not impossible. Hence, the Advertising Standards
Council of India (ASCI) adopts a Code for Self-Regulation in Advertising. It is a
commitment to honest advertising and to fair competition in the market-place. It
stands for the protection of the legitimate interests of consumers and all concerned
with advertising - advertisers, media, advertising agencies and others who help in
the creation or placement of advertisements. Adoption of these codes will lead in
fewer false, misleading claims, fewer unfair advertisements and increasing
respectability.
Ban on surrogate advertising: The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
has taken a decision to ban surrogate advertising, which may cost the broadcasters
as much as Rs 200 crore a year. Taking into account print media ads, this could
rise to Rs 250 crore if ads from brands such as Kingfishers mineral water, Royal
Stag Mega cricket, White Mischief Holidays are no longer allowed to be aired.
Many of these brands associate themselves with sports such as golf and cricket in
India; the DLF IPL Bangalore franchise has been named after UB Groups
premium whiskey brand Royal Challenge. Kingfisher Mineral Water, McDowells
No 1 Soda, Bacardi Blast were amongst the biggest advertisers on television, their
volume of advertising comparing well with advertising by aerated drinks makers.
According to a media buyer of a leading agency, an average liquor brands spend
across platforms is as much as Rs 45 crore, and as long as a surrogate brand has a
strong business proposition it should be allowed to advertise.
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CAS (Conditional Access System) implementation altering viewership
distribution: With CAS system, consumers would have the option to choose the
channels they want to pay for and view, rather than receiving the whole set of
channels made available to them by the cable operator. The work on CAS had firstcommenced when the then I and B Minister Sushma Swaraj set up a task force in
September 2001. Following its report, the Cable TV Networks (Regulation) Act
1995 was amended and a notification was issued for introducing the system within
six months and a new task force was set up to ensure this.
Direct-To-Home Growth Spurring Niche Programming: The huge array of
channels available to DTH subscribers has increased and continues to increase. If
we take a closer look at the composition of population across Asia, there are a
plethora of different languages, cultures and religions living side-by-side. These
different pockets all have different specific requirements when it comes to
television programming and channel choice. These bouquets of channels are also
extremely popular with expatriates of countries across the world. No matter where
they now reside, they may still gain access to the programmes that they wouldreceive in their country of birth.
In India, the DTH market has doubled in the past two years. Satellite offers many
benefits to a country like India. It can be deployed anywhere, no matter how
remote. It needs no prior infrastructure. It is a cheap method of delivery. It is also
very reliable.
Deregulation of FM radio increasing media penetration: There are 104 million
radio households in the country, and approximately 111 million radio sets. Radio
covers 97.3% of the country's population and 91% of the country's geographical
area. The size of the advertising pie in the radio industry currently is
approximately 4% and growing at 10-12%.
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1.4.3) Social Factors:
Teens emerge as influential consumers: Beyond the growth in the Teen
population, marketers cannot afford to ignore Teens for numerous other reasons.
This growing powerbase of spenders and influencers are important because they:
1. Have significant discretionary income.
2. Spend family money as well as influence their parents spending on both large
and small household purchases.
3. Establish and affect fashion, lifestyle, and overall trends.
4. Provide a window into our society a view of how it is now, and what it is
likely to become.
Non-Metro India influencing advertising strategies: The Indian economy has
been saved from the slowdown due to rural growth is true to a certain extent.
India's growth has been fuelled more by domestic demand than exports. Also
Indian spending and saving habits differ from other parts of the world. Indians by
their very nature always save for their future and this holds them in good stead
during times of crisis. The Indian buyer is more finance conscious than his global
peer. The Indian banking system is actually more resilient and the level of
delinquencies is far lower than in other parts of the world.
1.4.4) Technological factors:
Digital and graphic innovation in outdoor advertising: Amongst the varioustools of advertising, outdoor advertising is one of the effective techniques used by
advertisers to keep businesses afloat and also to increase product awareness and
sales. Wide ranges of outdoor advertiser have so far created a huge impact with
their advertisements. Various forms or methods of outdoor advertising are
available such as banner ads, billboard ads, kiosk ads, lamp post ads etc.
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Animation industry driving creativity: Animation is often used in
advertisements. The pictures can vary from hand-drawn traditional animation to
computer animation. By using animated characters, an advertisement may have a
certain appeal that is difficult to achieve with actors or mere product displays. Forthis reason, an animated advertisement (or a series of such advertisements) can be
very long-running, several decades in many instances. The animation is often
combined with real actors.
Animated characters are making a spirited return to the marketing world, but in a
break from the earlier practice of saddling them with the entire brand, they are
being used in short periods to promote a product or service.
Companies like Maruti, came with its cartoon mascot, Mr WiseR, Mentos the
man-donkey combination, Docomos dancing logo characters, Vodafones
zoozoos, Amul came with Amul girl, Air India came with Maharaja, ICICI
Prudential came with Chintamani and Sunfeast came with Sunny and Pillsbury
doughboy. Castrols animated Rajinikanth series and Centre Freshs animated
zubaan pe lagaam that featured caricatures of Rakhi Sawant, Rahul Mahajan and
Bappi Lahiri, and many more cartoon characters have made a remarkable success
to the brand it was launched for.
INSAT 4 series launch: INSAT-4 series is deigned to meet the requirements for
direct-to-home television and communication services, video picture transmission,
and digital satellite news gathering services, as well as to serve the National
Informatics Center with VSAT connectivity.
Internet penetration driving online advertising: Online advertising in India is
fast gaining acceptance and offers an ever increasing user base. Increasing
awareness among advertisers and increase in Internet penetration are driving
growth of the online medium and its horizontals. The market is expected to
witness only a 27% p.a. growth from 2008-2013.
Growing Internet user base, increasing time spent on the Internet, broadband
penetration into households and fragmented media consumption habits of
consumers are driving advertisers towards the online medium
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1.5) Top Advertising Companies Of India:
Advertising is a big business in this era in India. Indian Advertising industry has
witnessed a prominent globalization. With the inception of various divisions, the
advertising industry has undergone a sea change. Indian consumer's deepening pocket
and blooming markets for ad-spends have touched new heights in India. The Indian
Advertising Companies are creating stories and brand experiences in a way that
engages and involves. The Best Indian sites offer the names of the top Advertising
Organizations in India. Some of the top Indian websites are:
Ogilvy and Mather:
This is one of the leading advertising companies in India. This organization believes
that devotion to the brand defines the profile of their company. This company has
offices across the globe. The objective of the company is to build brands. I t is a
subsidiary of WPP Group plc. This company is headquartered at New York.
J Walter Thompson India:
One of the most popular companies in the advertising industry is J Walter Thompson
India. Their objective is to make advertising a part of the life of the consumers. This is
also world's best advertising brand with about 200 offices in 90 countries. This
company is the first one to introduce pioneer careers in ad for women, sex-appeal ads
and also produced the first ever sponsored -TV program.
Mudra Communication Pvt. Ltd:
This is one of the renowned advertising companies of India. This advertising
organization was founded in the year 1980 at Mumbai. Recently the Ad Company
declared the addition of public relations, rural marketing, events etc. The head office
of the company is in Bombay Area.
FCB-Ulka Advertising Ltd:
One of the best companies in India in the advertising arena is FCB-Ulka Advertising
Ltd. In US, this advertising company ranks third and tenth in the world having about
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188 offices in 102 countries. Their aim is to reflect the needs of the brand and not the
personality of the brand. It has about 500 professionals and no prima donnas.
Rediffusion-DY&R:
This Advertising Company of India has made a benchmark in the field of creativity.
India's 5th largest advertising company is Rediffusion. This advertising agency offers
a wide array of integrated pr services for external and internal communications. The
primary strength of the company lies in the media relations.
McCann-Erickson India Ltd:
The prominent name among the best advertising companies of India is McCann-
Erickson India Ltd. They define work in relation to the impact that advertising has on
the lives of masses. The testimony of the company in which it firmly believes is the
campaign of Coca -cola-'Thanda Matlab Coca Cola'.
RK Swamy/BBDO Advertising Ltd:
It maintained the record of remaining consistently among the top ten advertising
agencies in India. Established in 1973, this advertising reached great heights. This is
also India's No.1 research company in the market sector and is fully run by Indians.
Brand Equity is an integral part of the company.
Grey Worldwide (I) Pvt. Ltd:
A significant name in India in the world of advertising agencies is Grey Worldwide
(I) Pvt Ltd.The Company is primarily based in Mumbai and has offices in Kolkata,
Ahmedabad, Bangalore and New Delhi. It is a subsidiary of Grey Worldwide. The
company specializes in advertising and marketing services.
Leo Burnett India Pvt. Ltd:
It has a significant presence in about 96 offices in 10 countries. This advertising
agency was awarded the 'Worldwide Agency of the Year' in 2004.They are proficient
in explaining how a single image is worth thousand words and can break the barriersof language but not at the cost of the ad's emotional power.
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Contract Advertising India Ltd:
This advertising company of India is one of the leading advertising agencies in India.
It is one-to-one customer lifecycle management advertising agency. It was founded in
1992 and is situated in Mumbai. It offers a wide range of services like online
marketing and strategy and many others.
1.6) Indian Advertising Industry using more Humour in TV
commercials:
Today advertisers are increasingly replacing sex appeal with humour as the way to
reach the consumer's purse. A look at the Indian advertising scenario now shows that
an overwhelming number of TV commercials rely on being funny, irrespective of
whether the product is low involvement, such as soft drinks, beer or candies.
"Humour can work anywhere. There are no rules," said Arvind Bugga, chief strategist
with Delhi-based advertising agency K Factor. Bugga said "We had created an ad for
Lakshmi Cement. To emphasise the strength of the cement the visual clip showed a
cyclist with bags of Lakshmi Cement colliding with a truck. The truck disintegrates
but the cyclist with his cement remains intact. Cement is a high involvement product
and yet the humour worked. Our client ran the ad for more than two years".
The rules of the game have changed, especially for TV commercials. While print
media ads are still rather staid, most audio-visual advertising relies heavily on humour
to attract attention.
"Humour is the new sex in advertising," says Mokokoma Mokhonoana, founder and
creative director of South African ad agency Two Way and author of Design Literacy
Journal.
Marketing pundits have for long believed that humour is best used for products that
are low involvement, low cost and purchased regularly. "In fact, this has been
established empirically by something known as the Product Colour Matrix," AnindyaChatterjee, professor of marketing, Slippery Rock University, Pennsylvania.
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But Indian advertisers are certainly challenging the wisdom that humour works only
for certain categories. Humour is being used even for high involvement products like
insurance or pension funds such as the Max New York Life ads where a child is asked
to pronounce "Czechoslovakia" or where a retired man is planning to go to a distant
city to attend the marriage of the daughter of someone whom he hardly knows.
The comic element can be found in many other high involvement products such as
mobile phone services (Vodafone), motor cars (Hyundai Santro), television sets (Sony
Bravia), and motor bikes (Hero Honda).
"Today with so many people suffering from depression and suppressed anxiety,
humour brings relief and catches attention," said Bashab Sarkar, MD and CEO ofDelhi-based advertising agency Media Pros. He said "There are two major routes to
catching attention - testimonials and humour. But the main thing is big ideas are
missing and there are too many products. So, often there is no choice but to use
humour".
Of course, there are downsides. "There is certainly a big risk when using the comic
element. It has to be executed perfectly just as a joke has to be told perfectly -
otherwise it falls flat and no one laughs," Bugga said.
"Relevance is another key element," said Sarkar. "The Vodafone campaign with little
white characters is funny but it is done in such a way that all the attributes that
Vodafone wants to highlight are brought to the viewer's attention," he said.
Some marketing gurus are, however, downright sceptical of using humour in
advertising. "Even if people find your humour amusing, does it sell? My belief is that
generally it does not. What sells are clear benefits," says Michael Hepworth, a top
marketing consultant in the US and whose free "Marketing Tips" magazine is read by
thousands of business owners around the world in more than 47 countries.
I would certainly advise against indiscriminate use of humour," said Chatterjee.
Even as the marketing gurus slug it out over the issue of using humour in advertising,
the creative honchos in ad agencies are merrily going ahead with laugh riots.
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CHAPTER 2:
RESEARCHDESIGN
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2) RESEARCH DESIGN:
2.1) Background to the research:
Around the turn of the last century, most of the serious-minded architects of modern
advertising like John E. Powers, Albert Lasker, John E. Kennedy, Claude Hopkins,
and Ernest E. Calkinsheld the use of humour in low favour (Beard, 2005).
Outrageous limericks, claims, slogans, racial and ethnic caricatures, and a flippant
style of copy are the examples of the humour that were used in the newspaper
advertising in the mid to late 1800s (Beard, 2005). But such ads were not very
common and they mainly focused on highlighting the products features in a straight-
forward manner. However, the things have changed and the need for creativity in
ads has arisen.
Today, the consumers are exposed to thousands of commercial advertisements and
messages in various forms every week (Speck and Elliott 1997; Blackwell et al.,
2005), making it difficult for each advertiser to stand out as unique and persuade
consumers to consider their product or service. To break through the clutter of
competing ads and to gain attention of the viewer, advertisers spend a lot of time and
money on making the ads noticeable and effective. One way of doing this is to
outspend the competition by running more and larger campaigns than other brands
(Pieters et al., 2002). This may explain the large market share and success of leading
firms. But this may not be feasible for all the brands, as only a few firms have the
ability to outspend competition to this extent. One more way of breaking through the
clutter is by promoting the brands by using creative ads. Ad agency professionals
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have long promoted creativity as one of the most important elements in advertising
(Helgesen 1994; Kover et al., 2007) and the advertising awards too, focus on the
creativity of the ad. Creative ads not only push the message into viewers minds, but
are also cost-effective (Kover et al., 1995; El-Murad and West, 2003; Till and Black,
2005). Within the field of advertising, most definitions of creativity involve an aspect
of newness, unexpectedness, or originality. Leo Burnett defined advertising creativity
as the art of establishing new and meaningful relationships between previously
unrelated things in a manner that is relevant, believable, and in good taste, but which
somehow presents the product in a fresh new light (El-Murad and West 2004). Many
dimensions have been associated with advertising creativity. The most notable ones
are - humour(Weinberger and Spotts 1989; Lee and Mason 1999),positiveness (Ang
and Low 2001), and well-craftiness (White and Smith 2001). Also, due to the fact that
many markets are rather saturated today, many commercials aim at the recipients
emotional attention rather than presenting their products features and advantages.
Amongst the various means used to appeal emotionally to the audience, humour
provides the advertiser with the tool to evoke positive feelings in the audience (Beard,
2005).
Humour has always been a pervasive part of life. Over the years psychologists,
scientists and sociologists have given significance to the benefits of humour. By
giving a voice to difficult thoughts or emotions, humour helps people to cope with
challenging situations by releasing tension (Francis, 1994; Freud, 1928). Humour also
plays an important role in social communication (Lynch, 2002), and is often used to
gain social power by controlling the situation (Barsoux, 1993). It eases tension in
awkward social settings and facilitates social bonding (Francis, 1994). One more
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important and the most relevant aspect of humour in the context of this study is the
use of humour in advertising strategies. The prevalent use and eminent popularity of
advertising humour amongst advertisers and audiences confirms its importance in the
contemporary world (Beard, 2005). Advertisers frequently use humour to
communicate with their target audiences. As Roman and Maas (1976) note,
Everyone likes funny commercials. Creative people like creating them. Advertisers
are pleased to be running them. The consumer enjoys them.
Semantically, Attardo (1994) has built up the field of humour as in figure 2.1:
Figure 2.1 - Different kinds of humour
(Source: Attardo, 1994)
Looking at these variety of concepts, it comes as no surprise that there is little
consensus about the effects of humorous ads. This is based on individual
predispositions one person might find a commercial extremely amusing while
another rejects it (Beard, 2008).
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Estimates of the use of humorous advertising suggest that almost 24.4% of prime time
television advertising in the U.S. is intended to be humorous (Weinberger and Spotts,
1989). Earlier researches conducted in other mediums of advertising also suggest
similar results. Accordingly, there is a high level of usage of humour in television ads
(Kelly and Solomon, 1975; Markiewicz, 1972; Speck, 1987) and in radio (Weinberger
and Campbell, 1991). Also, around 10 to 30% of the annual advertising expenditure in
the United States is used for ads with humour intent (Krishnan and Chakravarti,
2003), reflecting marketers belief in humour as an effective advertising tool. The
usage of humour also varies from one region to another depending on their culture
(Mooij, 1994). Similarly, many studies have been carried out to understand the
different humour types and mechanisms used by the advertisers to make the ad
effective. The work in the field of humour in advertising is not yet comprehensive and
many practitioners and researchers are still exploring the mysteries regarding the
effectiveness of humour in ads. The present research too, tries to throw light upon the
concept of humour in advertising by analysing the existing literatures, estimating the
gaps in the same and finally evaluating the use and effect of humour in Indian
advertisements.
2.2) Review of few previous studies:
The present research initially addresses the various studies which propose the use of
different media types, followed by the general views on the effectiveness of humour
in advertising by various practitioners. Furthermore, various theories and models (e.g.
Weinberger and Gulas (1992), Speck (1991), Spotts et al., (1997) and so on) have also
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been discussed in a comprehensive manner. The gaps in the existing literature have
been analysed and appropriate research questions are formed on the same basis.
2.3) Research problem:
Most of the theories and constructs in advertising literature are based on the empirical
findings of a few researchers and practitioners. These findings again are based on a
few experiments done in labs or classrooms with a small sample size, or quantitative
surveys (e.g. Madden and Weinberer, 1982; Duncan and Nelson, 1985 Weinberger
and Gulas, 1992; Cline and Kellaris, 1998; Spotts et al., 1997; Speck and Surgi, 1987;
Beard, 2008 and so on). A proper literature review would reveal that although humour
research over the past few years has increased, only a few studies have adopted a
systematic conceptual framework (Weinberger and Gulas 1992). Speck (1991) and
Spotts et al., (1997), based on their studies, conceptualized a framework of advertising
humour. Although, most researchers acknowledge their works and some use their
frameworks for further study, very rarely has the framework been applied to the study
of different humorous advertisements. This may be attributed to the major
concentration of humour research on quantitative analysis (by using surveys and
experiments) to develop further ideas, and neglecting the qualitative real-life
campaign analysis using case studies and history. One more research problem is the
lack of scholarly works regarding the use of humour in Indian advertisements, despite
the countrys extensive use of humour in its advertising campaigns. Almost 40% of all
Indian ads and 84% of all low-involvement, low-risk products in India use humour in
advertising (Agency FAQS, 2008). As such, it is quite imperative to do a detailed
analysis of the already existing low-risk, low-involvement products in India (by using
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examples, case studies or history) to gain a deeper insight of the Indian advertising
scene. This may also encourage further research in this field of study.
2.4) Introduction to the study:
Based on the issue being addressed and the type of research questions, a suitable
research approach and methodology are chosen. The present study employs case
study based qualitative research. Some researchers believe that the case studies
should be used only in an exploratory study, and experiments should be used for
explanatory or causal studies (Shavelson, 2002). But, according to Yin (2003), case
studies can be used not only as an exploratory strategy, but can also be used
effectively in causal and descriptive studies.
2.5) Need for the study:
The main purpose of this research is to analyze the Indian advertisements that use
humour as an important tool in marketing a product. The secondary purpose includes
an attempt at using case-study methodology as research tool, along with Specks
(1991) and Spotts (1997) frameworks to understand the humour types, humour
mechanisms and the reasons for their success (or failures).
2.6) Objectives of the Study:
1. To assess the role of humour in advertisements
2. To study a gap in the literature on advertising humour by exploring advertisers
uses of humour and explanations for its broad appeal.
3. To provide rich data and knowledge about the use of humour in advertising.
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2.7) Scope of the study:
The present research primarily concentrates on the use of humour in television
advertising in India only.
2.8) Research Methodology:
1) Type of study:
In this study both - exploratory and descriptive approaches are used, since the
primary concern is not only to gain familiarity with the Indian advertising market, but
also to explore the types of humorous ads in India (Kothari, 2005). In addition to
offering a better insight on humorous ads in India, the exploratory research may also
provide direction for a more formal research effort (descriptive and causal researches)
in this field later.
Yin (1994) defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the
boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which
multiple sources of evidences are used. The case study method is used in analysing
complex phenomena. Although many researchers consider case study as an authentic
and effective research strategy (Easton, 1994a; Parkhe, 1993; Yin, 1993, 1994, 2003),
no journal of research on case studies or case study methods exists and the most
common research methods textbooks hardly mention case studies (Yin, 1993).
However, this research strategy allows the researcher to retain the holistic and
meaningful characteristics of real-life events like individual life cycles, organization
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and managerial process and the consumer behaviour (Yin, 2003) and is therefore apt
in the present context of study. The succeeding sections justify the paradigm,
methodology and sample size used in the research.
2) Realism as the scientific paradigm:
According to researchers, there are two major approaches to theory development,
deductive theory testing and inductive theory building (Bonoma, 1985; Parkhe, 1993).
The deductive approach represents the positivist paradigm and the inductive approach
represents the phenomological paradigm. Furthermore, the phenomological paradigm
can be divided into three: critical theory, constructivism and realism (Guba and
Lincoln, 1994).
Table 2.1 - A framework for categorizing the scientific paradigms
(Source: Guba and Lincoln, 1994)
The present case study research involves the collection of perceptions of external
phenomena which involves psychology and feel of the consumers resulting from the
humorous ad. These perceptions are considered to be unobservable (Hunt, 1991, p.
282). As has been noted in the marketing literature (Hunt, 1991), positivism approach
considers only observable phenomena and is not appropriate for the unobservable
perceptions. Also, in this research, the research problems addressed are more
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descriptive than prescriptive in nature, as there are no positivist experiments or cause-
and-effect paths are required to solve the problem. Here, different case studies are
analyzed and theory building is being attempted, making it an inductive study and
unsuitable for a positivist approach (Perry, 1998). On the other hand, constructivism
and critical theory methods do not support commensurability (reliability and validity)
issues required for the evaluation of the present research topic and methodology
(Hunt, 1991).
Realism paradigm is different from the above three approaches since it considers the
unobservable perceptions, does not suffer from the limitations of relativism that
constructivism and critical theory possess and is commensurable with evaluation of
the research topic and method. Also, according to marketing literatures, realism is the
preferred scientific paradigm for the case study research (Hunt, 1991, Perry
1998).Therefore, realism rather than positivism, constructivism or critical theory is
used as an epistemological guide for this case study research.
Realisms description in Table 2.1 as being inductive might suggest that deduction
has little place in case study research, with theories being built without any reference
to theory. But this case study employs a mixture of induction and deduction to make
the research more exploratory and interesting. Fact and theory (induction and
deduction) are each necessary for the other to be of value (Emory and Cooper, 1991).
This point of view is also held by some marketing literatures (Glasser and Strauss,
1987; Perry, 1998; Eisenhardt, 1991). Also, pure induction might prevent the
researcher from benefiting from existing theory, just as pure deduction might prevent
the development of new and useful theory (Parkhe, 1993).
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3) Case-study as the methodology:
The purpose of this section is to justify the use of case study methodology in this
study. Case studies deal with an in-depth understanding about how different cases
provide insight into an issue or a unique case (Creswell et al., 2007). According to
Yin (1994), the usage of different research strategies depend on numerous factors as
shown in the table 2.2.
The three basic conditions which act as a deciding factor in deciding the type of
methodology to be used for the research are:
1) The type of research question posed
2) The extent of control an investigator has over actual behavioural events
3) The degree of focus on contemporary as opposed to historical events
Strategy
Form of Research
Question
Requires Control of
Behavioural Events?
Focuses on
Contemporary Events?
Experiment How, why? Yes Yes
Survey Who, where, what, how
many, how much?
No Yes
Archival
Analysis
Who, where, what, how
many, how much?
No Yes/No
History How, why? No No
Case Study How, why? No Yes
Table 2.2 - Relevant situations for different research strategies
(Source: Yin, 2003)
To begin with, a clear understanding of the research questions is necessary (Yin,
1994). The objective of the research questions of the present study is to find out how
humour is successfully used across various product categories in India and why are
these ads successful. A basic categorization scheme for the types of questions is
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assessing the type questions: what, who, where, why and how (Yin, 1994).
The first type of question what can be analyzed by using any of the five research
methods shown in the table 2.2. Similarly, who what and where (and their
derivatives) generally attract the analysis of archival records. If the study needed to
analyze which (i.e. who) age-group does the advertising target the most, and how
much effect does it have on the target audience, then it would be appropriate to
choose a survey method initially, followed by an archival analysis. In contrast, how
and why type of questions lead to the use of case studies, histories and experiments
as research methodologies (Yin, 1994). The questions do not demand the knowledge
of frequencies or incidences of the humorous ads over a period of time, and hence
conducting a survey or examining archival records would be baseless.
Case study analysis overlaps with the history approach, when the latter deals with
contemporary events (Yin, 1994). The case studies rely on many of the same
techniques as history, but besides that it also includes the direct observation of events
and/or interview of the persons involved in the events. Moreover, it is possible to club
both the research strategies (case study and history) since those are not mutually
exclusive (Yin, 1994). In the present context, clubbing of the two methodologies is
apt for conducting research. But for simplification purpose and also since historical
analysis is a part of case study method, the present methodology may be referred to as
case-study approach. In the case studies mentioned in this research, contemporary
advertisements and direct observation of these ads form a part of the analysis.
Furthermore, as one of the research question is based on how, it is not possible to
have control over the actual behavioural events, and hence case studies or a survey
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method can be used (Yin, 2003). Also, according to Yin (2003), what questions too
can be handled with the help of case studies. Since all the three deciding conditions in
table 3.2 are satisfied, it can be assumed that the case-study approach is viable in the
present study. Also, to increase the validity and robustness of the research analysis,
multiple cases are considered in the study (Yin, 1994).
Besides, case study approach also encompasses many advantages. The detailed
qualitative accounts produced in case studies not only help to explore or describe the
data in real-life environment, but also help to explain the complexities of real-life
situations which may not be captured through experimental or survey research
(Zaidah, 2003). Case studies also allow for both quantitative and qualitative analyses
of the data (Yin, 1994).
2) Selection of cases:
Type of cases:
According to Patton (1990), for qualitative research like the case study methodology,
the selection of cases should be purposeful, rich in information, involve replication
logic and depend on the conceptual framework developed from prior theory. Also,
Yin (1994) studied that multiple cases should be regarded as multiple experiments
and not as multiple respondents in a survey. And hence replication logic rather than
sampling logic should be used for multiple case studies. The replication logic should
either predict similar results for predictable reasons (literal replication) or produce
contrary results for predictable reasons (theoretical replication) (Yin, 1994).
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In the present research, the cases chosen are very informative and relevant to the
research questions. Also, literal replication logic is used in the case studies to increase
the validity, and the entire data-analysis is supported by earlier theories, humour-
typologies and models. Although the three main case studies chosen belong to the
low-involvement, low-risk category, care has been taken to choose products which are
inherently dissimilar in their feel or functions to avoid recurring data and bias. Also,
supporting case studies and examples in the research make the analysis easier and
more information-rich.
Number of cases:
According to Eisenhardt (1989) and Lincoln and Guba (1985), the cases should be
added until theoretical saturation or the point of redundancy is reached
respectively. But this is practically not feasible due to the time constraints. This point
of view is also upheld by a few researchers. According to Romano (1989) and Patton
(1990), the choice of the number of case studies to be used is left to the researcher.
Moreover, excessive use of case studies (more than 15) may make the study
unwieldy and unclear (Miles and Huberman, 1994). In general the widest accepted
range seems to fall between two to four as the minimum and ten to fifteen as the
maximum (Perry, 1998).
In the present research, due to the time constraints, only three main cases were chosen
to answer the two research questions. The limited number of case studies demanded
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that each case-study be different from each other and still ensure literal replication. To
satisfy the demands supporting cases and examples are added.
Validity and reliability:
Based on the research questions, a careful selection of cases and evidences were done
to satisfy the purpose of study. While choosing the case-studies, the quality of the
qualitative research has to be given a lot of importance (Riege, 2003). The two
important aspects of the case-study research method that are to be addressed are
validity and reliability of the study (Perry, 1998; Ruyter, 1998).
To ensure construct validity, many advertising websites and interview experts of the
heads of the advertising and client organization were taken into consideration to
minimize any kind of bias (Riege, 2003). Also, most of the draft case-studies were
being examined by senior members of the advertising agencies involved in the
making of the ad. This added to the accuracy and validity of the case-study
construction (Yin, 1994). To ensure internal validity, the results were cross-checked
in the data analysis phase leading to internal coherence of findings (Yin, 1994).
Internal and external validity were increased by doing cross-case analysis of different
products, which in turn used multiple cases (Eisenhardt, 1989), i.e. although the case
studies dealt with low-risk, low-involvement products, the industries (for example, a
confectionery and an adhesive) and target audiences (in these cases different age
groups and places) chosen were different from each other, enabling cross-evaluation
and literal replication of the cases. This helped in testing whether the findings are
generalizable beyond the immediate case(s). The use of the concepts and theories
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from literature review during each research phase, especially in the data-analysis also
increases validity and reliability of the study (Yin, 1994; Riege, 2003). Moreover, the
congruence between most of the research issues arising out of the study and pre-
existing literatures explained earlier highlights the authenticity of the study.
3) Data analysis technique:
Based on the case studies explained, analysis of data is carried out. For this purpose,
each research question is handled at a time, and to do so, specific theories explained
in the literature review are used. The answer to the first research question is given by
the integration of the case studies and examples mentioned. A table is drawn to
analyze the humour types and mechanisms in the cases explained. The second
research question is approached differently, since it draws upon existing theories and
models.
2.9) Limitations of case study research:
Case study methodology has received criticisms over the years. One of the criticisms
is that they may lack vigour and may be based on equivocal evidence or biased views
to influence the direction of the findings and conclusions (Yin, 2003). To tackle this
issue, different product and sub-product categories are used, so that there is minimal
bias. Secondly, it is not feasible to generalize using a small number of subjects, some
conducted with only one subject (Tellis, 1997). The main purpose of this research is
not to generalize a particular idea, but to explore the Indian advertising scene, and
hence using case study approach is advantageous. Lastly, the case studies are often
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labelled as being too long, difficult to conduct and producing a massive amount of
documentation (Yin, 1984). At the same time using lesser number of case studies
may provide with less reliable and inaccurate results. Hence, in this research, 3 main
cases along with a few supporting examples are chosen from a small focused product
to strike a balance between reliability and feasibility of the study.
2.9.1) Limitations of the present study:
When case studies are successful in revealing some of the complexities of social or
educational situations, there is often a problem of representation. Also, the sample of
advertising case studies considered may not be broadly representative of the type of
advertisements made in India. This situation can make the findings of such research
very difficult to summarize.
The time constraints and the need to be specific and concise may have resulted in
choosing only a few case studies and hence the results obtained cannot be considered
as comprehensive.
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CHAPTER 3:
THEORETICAL
BACKGROUND
3) THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:
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The concept of humour in advertising has been studied by various authors,
practitioners and researchers over the years (Sternthal and Craig, 1973, Madden and
Weinberger, 1984; Speck, 1991; Weinberger and Gulas, 1995; Spotts et al., 1997;
Beard, 2003, 2007, 2008 and so on). The comprehensive literature review is very
necessary to support the present study for three main reasons. Firstly, the present
research topic demands that the researcher has an in-depth knowledge of theories and
constructs to have a proper understanding of the topic. Secondly, an extensive review
of existing literatures helps in finding the gaps in the literature, so that the problem
areas could be addressed effectively using apt research questions. Lastly, in the later
part of this research, data analysis uses the concepts and ideas of various practitioners
and theories to examine the case-studies. The review starts with the different views
regarding the presence of humour in different media types and the effectiveness of
humour in ads. This then followed by studying various frameworks and hypotheses of
researches like Weinberger et al. (1995), Speck (1991), Spotts et al. (1997) and so on.
Finally, the gaps in the existing literatures are proposed and on the same basis
research questions are developed.
Presence of humour in different media types:
The use of humour is prevalent in all kinds of media. Surveys show senior advertising
practitioners believe radio and television are the media best suited to humour and
direct mail and newspapers least suited (Beard, 2006; Madden and Weinberger,
1984). The presence of humour in US television advertising is estimated from 24%
(Weinberger et al., 1995) to 28% (Toncar, 2001) to 46.2% (Catanescu and Tom,
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2001) to 51% (Speck, 1991). Weinberger and Gulas (1995) provide the only available
estimate of humour in radio advertising, at 35%. The only existing study of the use of
humour in outdoor advertising was done by Bhargava et al. (1994). Around 282
Canadian outdoor advertising campaigns running between 1978 and 1991 were
analysed and it was found that 30% of the campaigns were intended to be humorous.
Use of humour in the other print media is not as prevalent. McCullough and Taylor
(1993) studied American, British, and German trade magazine advertisements and
found that 23% contained humour, with no significant differences by country.
Catanescu and Tom (2001) found that 5% of US magazine advertisements included
humour, compared to the 9.9% found by Weinberger et al. (1995). Humour in
newspapers and digital advertising has not been investigated much yet.
Difference in views regarding humour in advertisements:
Early advertisers used humour infrequently because they thought it could offend the
audience by violating the standards of good taste and their expectations of sincerity
(Beard, 2005). Even as modern advertising evolved and advertisers became more
confident about using humour, their concern about humour generating negative
responses continued. They cited several reasons for this concern: humour could be too
aggressive, it could be matched with inappropriate products and services, it could rely
on inappropriate themes, or it could irritate simply by being irrelevant (Beard, 2008).
But humour is very much prevalent in todays world, and has drawn the attention of
many researchers and advertisers.
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Over the years, a lot of researchers have opined about the effectiveness of humour in
ads. A review of existing literatures highlights the contingency regarding the role of
humour in advertisements. While the use of humour is high, the efficacy of humour as
a communications device remains uncertain and controversial (Weinberger and Gulas,
1992). Empirical findings regarding humour effects are largely inconclusive (Lee and
Lim, 2009). This lack of knowledge has led advertising copywriters and researchers
alike to both praise and decry the effectiveness of humour in ads. In their
comprehensive literature review, Weinberger and Gulas (1992) have pointed out the
disparity regarding the role and impact of humour on audience mentioned in various
journals and books. On one hand, humour has been credited with increasing attention
to an advertisement (Madden and Weinberger, 1982, 1984), increasing ad
comprehension (Stewart and Furse, 1986), contributing to the positive attitude toward
the ad (Belch and Belch, 1984; Duncan and Nelson, 1985; Gelb and Pickett, 1983)
and the advertised product (Gelb and Pickett, 1983; Scott, Klein, and Bryant 1990).
On the other hand, some believe that the use of humour may not be suitable for
certain products or services and may result in fasteradvertising wear out(Weinberger
and Gulas, 1992). Duncan (1979) studied that humour may offend some members of
the audience and may result in the vampire-effect, where the humour draws attention
away from the advertised product (Duncan, 1979; Sternthal and Craig, 1973; Gelb and
Zinkhan 1986). Due to the differences in desired goal, type of humour and medium
used, placement and audience, it is hard to generalize the effects of humour (Stewfirt-
Hunter 1985). Similarly, the variations in the parameters (type of humour used,
sample size, culture, medium, repetition, argument strength and so on) used by the
researchers in several dozen studies over the past forty years make it very difficult to
resolve the fundamental question about humours effectiveness. Therefore, in the
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recent years much of humour research has focused on identifying the boundary
(product, audience, message, medium, culture and so on) factors governing ad-
humour effectiveness (e.g., Alden and Hoyer, 1993; Chattopadhyay and Basu, 1990;
Cline, Altsech and Kellaris, 2003). Even more recently, researchers have started
building theory surrounding how humour is processed and identifying when humour
actually occurs (e.g., Elpers, Mukherjee, and Hoyer 2004).
3.1) Effectiveness of humour in advertising:
According to researchers, advertisers have long believed that advertising must arouse
some emotion to be effective (Beard, 2005). Furthermore, studies involving magazine
ads (Madden & Weinberger, 1982), radio ads (Weinberger & Campbell, 1991) and
television ads (Stewart & Furse, 1986) in the past have provided converging evidence
that humorous ads are more attention-grabbing than non-humorous ads. Joe
Sedelmaier, a guru of humorous ads, has long touted the claim that the presence of
humour effectively increases attention to ads (Dee 1993). According to Sutherland
and Sylvester (2000), there are three main mechanisms by which humorous ads are
supposed to work more effectively than straight ads:
1. Humorous ads are attention grabbers, and hence easily noticed.
2. There is minimal critical evaluation of humorous ads because viewers process them
as entertainment rather than engage in counter-argument.
3. They are liked more and there is evidence that ads that are liked have a higher
probability of being effective.
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Mehta and Purvis (2006) cited two main reasons for using emotional responses like
humour in advertising. Firstly, the key to branding is the triggering of an emotional
response, which is often the major benefit of using a particular product. Secondly, the
process that consumers go through in deciding what brands to buy has a heavy
emotion-based dimension to it. While there is agreement about the need for an
emotional response to advertising in order for it to be effective, there is considerable
argument about how exactly emotion works to influence the overall impact of
advertising. The same is the case with the measurement or evaluation of humour
response in advertising.
Over the years, numerous empirical studies and researches have attempted to explain
the relationship between humour and advertising effectiveness (e.g., Chattopadhyay &
Basu, 1990; Smith, 1993; Weinberger et al., 1995). For instance, Madden and
Weinberger (1984) conducted a survey which revealed that 94% believed humour was
effective in gaining attention, and 38% felt humour increased comprehension
(Madden & Weinberger, 1984). On the same lines, in a Video Storyboards survey of
randomly chosen consumers, 62% said that humorous ads were the most influential
and an American Advertising fax poll showed that 92% of respondents claimed that
humour was either highly or moderately effective as a selling tool (Custer, 1995).
The widespread use of humour, coupled with the unresolved questions regarding it,
has drawn the attention of numerous communication researchers. Major developments
in the field of humour in advertising started way back in late 1960s and 1970s. Some
important works include Sternthal and Craig (1973), Markiewicz (1974), Gruner
(1976) and Duncan (1979). Although, the reviews were written for different audiences
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Assessing the role of humour in Indian advertisements 41
and with different purposes, the conclusions arrived at are very consistent. Out of
these, the most frequently cited work in most of the literatures is that of Sternthal and
Craigs (1973). They drew some tentative conclusions about the use of humour on a
number of communications goals:
1. Humorous messages attract attention and may detrimentally affect comprehension
2. Humour may distract the audience, resulting in counter-argumentation and an
increase in persuasion.
3. Although humorous messages appear to be persuasive, the persuasive effect is not
too much greater than that of serious messages.
4. Humour enhances source credibility.
5. Audience characteristics may influence the effect of humour.
6. A humorous message may increase liking and create a positive mood, which in turn
may increase persuasion.
These conclusions are viewed as tentative because, although based on a thorough
review of the then existing literature in 1973, this literature base was somewhat small
and consisted almost exclusively of non-advertising studies and a few laboratory
experiments as there was simply little prior work in advertising to review. In the years
since the Stemthal and Craig work, humour has received extensive further
investigation in over 50 studies that have appeared not only in the marketing and
advertising literatures, but also in the field of communication and psychology.
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Figure 3.1 - Tactical considerations for humour in advertising
Source: Weinberger and Gulas (1992)
Weinberger and Gulas (1992) suggested that although no one study can account for
all the contingencies that affect humour, and instead the researchers must begin to
incorporate the factors that appear to influence humour if progress is to be made in
understanding its effects. They updated and expanded on the Stemthal and Craig
(1973) work by including execution, placement, audience and product factors in the
examination of the effect of humour in advertising. They also studied and analyzed
various existing literatures between 1965 and 1992 before pointing out the detrimental
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parameters in any kind of a humorous ad. Figure 3.1 shows the factors to be
considered in humorous advertising.
The above figure points out the important aspects of humour in advertising: product,
message type, intended goal, type of audience et al. According to Weinberger and
Gulas (1992), it is not feasible to assess whether humour in advertising is effective,
and instead the most appropriate way to analyze the role of humour would be to
answer the following questions:
1. What communications goals are most likely to be achieved through the use of
humour?
2. What message factors are likely to affect the outcome?
3. For what audience is humour most appropriate?
4. What product factors suggest the use or non-use of a humorous approach?
Though the fundamental question of humour's effectiveness in advertising remains
unanswered, we can analyze the accounts of past and present humour research in the
context of proper constraints and boundaries to gain better insights about its effects. In
the succeeding sections, the study focuses on the different views of various literatures
regarding the effect of humour in advertisements, with the work of Weinberger and
Gulas (1992), Spotts et al. (1997) and Speck (1991) in the hindsight.
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3.2) A framework for examining advertising humour (Speck,1991):
Given the mixed evidences and varying points of views, it would seem appropriate to
askwhen humour in advertising is effective rather than if humour is effective (Cline
and Kellaris, 1999). Spotts et al. (1997) conceptualized a model (figure 3.2) with a
product-contingent focus for examining humour in magazine advertising based on the
framework of Speck (1991). The same model can be used in general since it takes into
account the background factors and message factors shown in figure 3.2. The
resulting approach also provides a clearer understanding of the appropriate use of
humour through the examination of:
l. The humour mechanisms employed,
2. The relatedness of humour to the ad or product, and
3. The type of productadvertised.
There has been considerable amount of work done on humour mechanisms and
humour relatedness over the past few years by many researchers and practitioners,
which would be discussed further. On the other hand, the effect the product has on the
choice and evaluation of an ad has not been studied thoroughly as yet. Although it is
not viable to get an exact point of view in this regard, the work of Weinberger et al.
(1995) provides a useful framework to understand product contingencies, which is
also included in this section.
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Figure 3.2 - A framework for advertising humour
(Source: Spotts et al., 1997)
1) Humour mechanisms or humour type:
The mechanisms that govern humour can be grouped into three broad categories:
affective, cognitive and interpersonal (McGhee 1974; Wicker, Barron, and Willis
1980). Although there is no generally accepted taxonomy for humour (Gruner 1991),
these three mechanisms together are believed to drive humour. In contrast to more
technique-oriented typologies, the three mechanisms mentioned are psychologically
based and provide a conceptual rather than an operational starting point for studying
humour (Beard, 2008). Speck (1987, 1991) recognized the value of the more
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theoretical approach and encompassed the three basic humour mechanisms in his
empirical work which represent the three conceptual variations in humour: arousal-
safety (affective), incongruity (cognitive), and disparagement (social) (see Figure
3.2). Prior research on humour types and audience response has focused
predominantly on incongruity-resolution humour, whereas arousal-safety and
disparagement have gone almost entirely un-investigated (Beard, 2008). Also, the
Arousal-safety and disparagement-based humour mechanisms often require subtle
cues that may be communicated more effectively through sight, motion and sound,
thus making the usage of these in magazine-based advertisements sparse (Spotts et al.,
1997). These, when used individually or together, generate five humorous
advertisement types: resonant humour, comic wit, resonant wit, satire and full comedy
(Beard 2007; Beard and Tarpenning, 2005; Speck, 1991). This study adopts Specks
framework because it is most deeply rooted in the humour literature and is easier to
correlate it with the concept of advertising.
Arousal-safety mechanism:
Arousal-safety is also referred to by a few researchers as release or relief theories
(Keith-Spiegel, 1972; McGhee, 1983; Morreal, 1983; Rothbart, 1977). Here, the basic
stimulus of arousal is the induction of anxiety or uncertainty for oneself or another.
The tension is relieved when people are able to make a safety judgment that the
object of the anxiety is either safe or the consequences insignificant, which often
results in feelings of good will (Speck, 1991). For instance, viewers may have
experienced empathy or anxiety for someone or something in the ad that experienced
or narrowly avoided some kind of minor disaster. The ad is likely to encourage warm,
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sentimental feelings, sympathy or an outpouring of goodwill (Beard, 2008). Arousal-
safety theory, however, also explains the humorous effects of potentially offensive
stimuli, such as embarrassing social situation, fear appeals, shockingly graphic
images, or explicit sexual remarks and actions (Beard and Tarpenning, 2005; Speck,
1991). Furthermore, Beards (2004) review of the advertising humour literature led
him to suggest arousal-safety humour might more frequently lead to offense,
compared to the other humour types.
Disparagement mechanism:
This mechanism is based on Superiority theory, which is perhaps the earliest theory of
humour and laughter. This view, originated by Plato, emphasizes on laughter as a
result of feeling superior to others by using jokes, puns or something else which can
evoke such a feeling (LaFave 1972). In this mechanism, the ads ridicule something or
someone, such as a rival firm or another advertiser. The intention of the ad is to
spread humour by making someone feel superior to someone else and to show the
victim of attack in a negative light by using satire or sarcasm (for example, Coca Cola
ads normally disparage Pepsi Co products and vice versa). According to Beard
(2008), in this form of humour mechanism, the ad takes form of implicit or explicit
criticism, a judgment or evaluation, a put-down, or the exposure of someones
silliness, stupidity or folly. Disparagement humour is also called Ha-ha humour
(Behrens et al., 1999), which means that someone is just laughing at something with
the laughter having a mainly affective background. Origins of this theory go back to
Aristotle and Plato, who presented definitions for humour and comedy as something
that makes us laugh when the evil or ugly is ridiculed or suffers.
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If the ad encourages viewers to identify personally with the object of the
disparagement and views the victim in a positive light or makes the audience feel
sympathetic or indifferent towards the victim, the mechanism used is arousal-safety
and not disparagement (Beard, 2008). For example, in an ad if someone slips and falls
in a crowded place, but viewers are not encouraged to feel that the victim deserved the
accident, it is arousal-safety and not disparagement.
Incongruity mechanism:
The most popular and also the most widely used strategy for breaking through
consumers perceptual screens is to present information that is incongruent with
their pre-existing expectations (Heckler & Childers, 1992). By using incongruent
images, advertisers increase attention and the extent to which the target information is
processed. According to this mechanism, an incongruity (deviation from the expected)
is followed by a resolution in which the incongruity is understood. In other words,
incongruity theory contends that people perceive humour when a stimulus is
consistent with two partially or fully contrasting scripts and a punch line switches
them from one to the other, triggering a resolution of the incongruity (Beard et al.,
2005; Raskin, 1985; Speck, 1991). The initial response to this type of ad may be a
cognitively based discrepancy reaction (Huh!). More elaboration may resolve the
meaning of the humour (Aha!) and generate a response (Ha Ha!) (Krishnan and
Chakravarti, 2003). In this mechanism, the ads, besides being witty, or silly, are
generally incongruent, unexpected, possibly surprising and sometimes impossible
(e.g., talking animals, dancing trees), inducing play confusion amongst audiences. The
ads that are initially viewed as surprising, confusing or unrelated ultimately fall into
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place and make sense to the viewers or readers when the punch line makes sense at
some level with the earlier incongruent information in the joke. It is believed that
more unexpected the incongruity, the greater is the humour response (Weinberger and
Gulas, 2004). Some incongruity theorists though, believe that incongruity itself may
be sufficient to produce humour and may not need an explicit resolution. But, several
studies suggest that incongruity alone, without resolution may leave the audience
frustrated because they might not get the joke (Walden and Hoyer, 1993). It is
expected that the incongruity-resolution combination presents a more humorous
situation that the same incongruity without a punch line (Flaherty, Weinberger and
Gulas, 2004). The approach is based on the assumption that the crucial factor in a
humorous advertisement is a kind of incongruity which surprises the recipient. While
he/she expects some certain features based on earlier experiences with similar
situations, the ad generally evokes a situation that does not comply with the
recipients expectations. However, in order to be humorous, the situational context
must be safe and non-threatening (Beard, 2008). The incongruity often appears in
combination with a pun or a metaphor. This type of humour is also called Ah-ha
humour (Behrens et al., 1999) as the consumer experiences intellectual pleasure by
solving a small challenge.
Resonant humour is generated entirely by the arousal-safety mechanism and comic
wit is generated entirely by the incongruity-resolution mechanism (Beard and
Tarpenning, 2005; Speck, 1991). The resonant wit advertisement type is generated by
a combination of arousal-safety and incongruity-resolution. Satire is produced by a
combination of the incongruity-resolution and disparagement mechanisms (Beard and
Tarpenning, 2005; Speck, 1991). In satire, the stimulus of humour arousal is the
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disparaging portrayal of another and the resulting tension is a mixture of enjoyment
tinged with anxiety or guilt over enjoyment of the disparagement (Beard, 2008). The
fifth type of humorous advertisement, full comedy, is a function of all three
mechanisms.
2) Humour relatedness:
There is also research on the extent to which advertising humour is related to the
product or service advertised, although it is not too detailed (Beard, 2008). In addition
to the basic humour mechanisms, Speck (1991) outlined a broader typology of
humour that incorporates the relatedness of humour in an ad on three levels:
intentional, structural and thematic as shown in figure 3.1. Speck's comprehensive
treatment of relatedness is cited very often by most researchers in literary theory and
semiotics.
Intentional Relatedness:
Intentional relatedness refers to how the humour is related to message type and
message processing (i.e. the degree of dominance of humour in the message).
Intentional