Sanskrit 1

Sanskrit

Sanskritसंस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam

The word Sanskrit (संस्कृतम्) written in Devanagari.

Pronunciation [sə̃skɹ̩t̪əm]

Region Greater India

Era ca. 1200–600 BCE (Vedic Sanskrit), after which it gave rise to the Middle Indo-Aryan languages. Continues as a liturgicallanguage (Classical Sanskrit).Attempts at revitalization; 14,000 self-reported speakers (2001 census)

Language family Indo-European

•• Indo-Iranian

•• Indo-Aryan

•• Sanskrit

Early forms Vedic Sanskrit

•• Sanskrit

Writing system No native script.Written in Devanagari, various Brāhmī-based alphabets, Thai in vocabularies, and Latin script

Official status

Official languagein

Uttarakhand, IndiaOne of the 22 scheduled languages of India

Language codes

ISO 639-1 sa

ISO 639-2 san

ISO 639-3 san

Sanskrit (/ˈsænskrɪt/; संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam [səmskr̩t̪əm], originally संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, "refined speech") is ahistorical Indo-Aryan language, the primary liturgical language of Hinduism and a literary and scholarly language inBuddhism and Jainism. Developing from Vedic Sanskrit, today it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages ofIndia and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand. Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-Europeanstudies.The corpus of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical,philosophical and dharma texts. Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religiousrituals and Buddhist practice in the forms of hymns and mantras. Spoken Sanskrit has been revised in some villageswith traditional institutions, and there are attempts at further popularisation.

Sanskrit 2

NameThe Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as "put together, constructed, well or completely formed;refined, adorned, highly elaborated". It is derived from the root saṃ-skar- "to put together, compose, arrange,prepare", where saṃ- "together" (as English same) and (s)kar- "do, make".The term in the generic meaning of "made ready, prepared, completed, finished" is found in the Rigveda. Also inVedic Sanskrit, as nominalised neuter saṃskṛtám, it means "preparation, prepared place" and thus "ritual enclosure,place for a sacrifice".As a term for "refined or elaborated speech" the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit, in theManusmriti and in the Mahabharata. The language referred to as saṃskṛta "the cultured language" has by definitionalways been a "sacred" and "sophisticated" language, used for religious and learned discourse in ancient India, andcontrasted with the languages spoken by the people, prākṛta- "natural, artless, normal, ordinary".

VarietiesClassical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the 4th century BCE.[1] Itsposition in the cultures of Greater India is akin to that of Latin and Greek in Europe and it has significantlyinfluenced most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent, particularly in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lankaand Nepal.The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldestand most archaic stage preserved, its oldest core dating back to as early as 1500 BCE. This qualifies RigvedicSanskrit as one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Iranian language, and one of the earliest attested members ofthe Indo-European languages, the family which includes English and most European languages.

Vedic Sanskrit

Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari, early 19th century

Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, had evolvedout of the earlier "Vedic" form. Thebeginning of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced asearly as 1500–1200 BCE (for Rig-vedic andIndo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni).Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskritand Classical or "Pāṇinian" Sanskrit asseparate 'dialects'. Though they are quitesimilar, they differ in a number of essentialpoints of phonology, vocabulary, grammarand syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the languageof the Vedas, a large collection of hymns,incantations (Samhitas), theological andreligio-philosophical discussions in theBrahmanas and Upanishads. Modernlinguists consider the metrical hymns of theRigveda Samhita to be the earliest,composed by many authors over severalcenturies of oral tradition. The end of theVedic period is marked by the composition

of the Upanishads, which form the concluding part of the Vedic corpus in the traditional view; however the early Sutras are Vedic, too, both in language and content. Around the mid-1st millennium BCE, Vedic Sanskrit began the

Sanskrit 3

transition from a first language to a second language of religion and learning.

Classical SanskritFor nearly 2,000 years, a cultural order existed that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia,and to a certain extent, East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of the HinduEpics—the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be onaccount of interference from Prakrits, or "innovations" and not because they are pre-Paninean. Traditional Sanskritscholars call such deviations ārṣa (आर्ष), meaning 'of the ṛṣis', the traditional title for the ancient authors. In somecontexts, there are also more "prakritisms" (borrowings from common speech) than in Classical Sanskrit proper.Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit is a literary language heavily influenced by Middle Indic, based on early Buddhist prakrittexts which subsequently assimilated to the Classical Sanskrit standard in varying degrees.According to Tiwari (1955), there were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit: paścimottarī (Northwestern, alsocalled Northern or Western),madhyadeśī (lit., middle country), pūrvi (Eastern) and dakṣiṇī (Southern, arose in theClassical period). The predecessors of the first three dialects are even attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the firstone was regarded as the purest (Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa, 7.6).

Contemporary usage

As a spoken language

Modern SanskritNeo-Sanskrit

Region scattered villages

Native speakers 14,000 self-reported  (2001 census)(may not be native)

Language family revitalized Sanskrit or relexified local languages

Language codes

ISO 639-3 san (generic code)

The the 2001 census of India, 14,135 people reported Sanskrit as their native language. Since the 1990s, movementsto spread spoken Sanskrit have been increasing. Organisations like the Samskrita Bharati are conducting SpeakSanskrit workshops to popularise the language.Indian newspapers have published reports about several isolated villages, where, as a result of recent revivalattempts, large parts of the population, including children, are learning Sanskrit and are even using it to some extentin everyday communication:1. Mattur in Karnataka2.2. Mohad, District: Narasinhpur, Madhya Pradesh3. Jhiri, District: Rajgadh, Madhya Pradesh4.4. Kaperan, District: Bundi, Rajasthan5.5. Khada, District: Banswada, Rajasthan6. Ganoda, District: Banswada, Rajasthan[2]

7.7. Bawali, District: Bagapat, Uttar Pradesh8. Shyamsundarpur, District: Kendujhar, Odisha

Sanskrit 4

In official useIn the Republic of India Sanskrit is included in the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution.The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its second official language. In October 2012 noted socialactivist Hemant Goswami filed a writ petition in the Punjab and Haryana High Court for declaring Sanskrit as a'minority' language, so that it could enjoy special protection as available to minorities under the Constitution ofIndia.

Contemporary literature and patronageThe Sahitya Akademi has had, since 1967, an award for the best creative work written that year in Sanskrit. In 2009,Satyavrat Shastri became the first Sanskrit author to win the Jnanpith Award, India's highest literary award.

In mass mediaOver 90 weeklies, fortnightlies and quarterlies are published in Sanskrit. Sudharma, a daily newspaper in Sanskrithas been published out of Mysore in India since the year 1970, while Sanskrit Vartman Patram and VishwasyaVrittantam were started in Gujarat over the last five years. Since 1974, there has been a short daily news broadcaston state-run All India Radio. These broadcasts are also made available on the internet on AIR's website. Sanskritnews is broadcast on TV and on the internet as part of the DD National channel at 6:55 AM IST.

As a liturgical languageAs the liturgical language of Hindus, it is used during worship in Hindu temples throughout the world. Also, inNewar Buddhism, it is used in all the monasteries as liturgical language. It is also popular amongst the manypractitioners of yoga in the West, who find the language useful in understanding the Yoga Sutra [citation needed].

Devimahatmya manuscript on palm-leaf, in an early Bhujimol script, Bihar or Nepal, 11thcentury

Symbolic usage

In the Republic of India, in Nepal andIndonesia, Sanskrit phrases are widelyused as mottoes for various national,educational and social organisations(much as Latin is used by someinstitutions in the West). For example:

• Republic of India: 'सत्यमेव जयते'Satyameva Jayate "Truth alonetriumphs"

• Nepal: 'जननी जन्मभूमिश्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी' Janani Janmabhūmisca Svargādapi garīyasi "Mother and motherland aregreater than heaven"

• Aceh Province: 'पञ्चचित' Pancacita "Five Goals"Many of India's and Nepal's scientific and administrative terms are named in Sanskrit. The Indian guided missileprogram that was commenced in 1983 by DRDO has named the five missiles (ballistic and others) that it hasdeveloped as Prithvi, Agni, Akash, Nag and Trishul. India's first modern fighter aircraft is named HAL Tejas.

Sanskrit 5

Historical usage

Origin and developmentSanskrit is a member of the Indo-Iranian sub-family of the Indo-European family of languages. Its closest ancientrelatives are the Iranian languages Old Persian and Avestan.In order to explain the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages, many scholars haveproposed migration hypotheses asserting that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in what is nowIndia and Pakistan from the north-west some time during the early second millennium BCE.[3] Evidence for such atheory includes the close relationship of the Indo-Iranian tongues with the Baltic and Slavic languages, vocabularyexchange with the non-Indo-European Uralic languages, and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for floraand fauna.[4]

The earliest attested Sanskrit texts are Brahmanical texts of the Rigveda, which date to the mid-to-late secondmillennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive, if ever existed. However, scholars areconfident that the oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they were ceremonial literature whose correctpronunciation was considered crucial to its religious efficacy.From the Rigveda until the time of Pāṇini (fl. 4th century BCE) the development of the early Vedic language may beobserved in other Vedic texts: the Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, and Upanishads. During thistime, the prestige of the language, its use for sacred purposes, and the importance attached to its correct enunciationall served as powerful conservative forces resisting the normal processes of linguistic change. However, there is aclear, five-level linguistic development of Vedic from the Rigveda to the language of the Upanishads and the earliestSutras (such as Baudhayana).[]

Standardisation by PaniniThe oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar is Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī ("Eight-Chapter Grammar"). It is essentially aprescriptive grammar, i.e., an authority that defines correct Sanskrit, although it contains descriptive parts, mostly toaccount for some Vedic forms that had become rare in Pāṇini's time.Classical Sanskrit became fixed with the grammar of Panini (roughly 500 BCE), and remains in use as a learnedlanguage until the present day.

Coexistence with vernacular languagesThe term "Sanskrit" was not thought of as a specific language set apart from other languages, but rather as aparticularly refined or perfected manner of speaking. Knowledge of Sanskrit was a marker of social class andeducational attainment in ancient India and the language was taught mainly to members of the higher castes, throughclose analysis of Sanskrit grammarians such as Pāṇini and Patanjali, who exhorted that one should speak properSanskrit at all times, and at least during ritual. Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existedalongside the Prakrits (vernaculars), also called Middle Indic dialects, and eventually into the contemporary modernIndo-Aryan languages.Over the centuries, the Prakrits underwent language change to a degree that vernaculars and Sanskrit ceased to beintercomprehensible and had to be learned as a separate language, rather than a distinguished or noble register of thepopular language. This transition was completed by the Early Middle Ages (Middle Indic), but a significant numberof the elite remained fluent in Sanskrit, a situation directly comparable to the role of Latin in Medieval Europe.Prakrits dominated in Magadh, the eastern part of India during the time of Buddha and Mahavira, one of which waslikely the ancestor of Pali. Apparently in Gandhara the language remained particularly close to Sanskrit for a longtime. Mahmud the Gazanavi used Sanskrit on his coins, and Sanskrit was in use as an official language during earlyMuslim rule in Kashmir.

Sanskrit 6

Patronage and use by the upper classes

Many of the Sanskrit dramas suggest that it coexisted along with prakrits, spoken by multilingual speakers with moreextensive education. Sanskrit speakers were also almost always multilingual.[]

Some kings patronised Sanskrit poets. Rashtrakuta King Amoghavarsha is said to have composed a Sanskrit text.Parmara King Bhoja (1010–1053) himself composed and supervised the composition of Sanskrit texts. That suggeststhat Sanskrit was widely spoken and understood in that period by the elite.In the medieval era, Sanskrit continued to be spoken and written, particularly by learned Brahmins for scholarlycommunication. This was a thin layer of Indian society, but covered a wide geography. Centres like Varanasi,paithan, Pune, and Kanchipuram had a strong presence of teaching and debating institutions, and high classicalSanskrit was maintained until British times.Use of Sanskrit lingered on in Kashmir even during the Muslim period as is observed by use of Sanskrit on Muslimtombstones and in official documents.

DeclineThere are a number of sociolinguistic studies of spoken Sanskrit which strongly suggest that oral use of Sanskrit islimited, with its development having ceased sometime in the past.[5] Pollock (2001), says "most observers wouldagree that, in some crucial way, Sanskrit is dead". Pollock has further argued that, while Sanskrit continued to beused in literary cultures in India, Sanskrit was not used to express changing forms of subjectivity and socialityembodied and conceptualised in the modern age. Instead, it was reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideasalready explored, and any creativity in Sanskrit was restricted to hymns and verses.[6] He describes it in comparisonwith the "dead" language of Latin:

Both died slowly, and earliest as a vehicle of literary expression, while much longer retainingsignificance for learned discourse with its universalist claims. Both were subject to periodic renewals orforced rebirths, sometimes in connection with a politics of translocal aspiration... At the same time...both came to be ever more exclusively associated with narrow forms of religion and priestcraft, despitecenturies of a secular aesthetic.

Hanneder (2002) and Hatcher (2007) contest Pollock's characterisation, pointing out that modern works continue tobe produced in Sanskrit:

On a more public level the statement that Sanskrit is a dead language is misleading, for Sanskrit is quiteobviously not as dead as other dead languages and the fact that it is spoken, written and read will probablyconvince most people that it cannot be a dead language in the most common usage of the term. Pollock’snotion of the “death of Sanskrit” remains in this unclear realm between academia and public opinion when hesays that “most observers would agree that, in some crucial way, Sanskrit is dead”—Hanneder (2002:294)

Hanneder (2009) argues that modern works in Sanskrit are either ignored or their "modernity" contested.When the British imposed a Western-style education system in India in the nineteenth century, knowledge ofSanskrit and ancient literature continued to flourish as the study of Sanskrit changed from a more traditional styleinto a form of analytical and comparative scholarship mirroring that of Europe.

Sanskrit 7

Public education and popularisation

Adult and continuing educationAttempts at reviving the Sanskrit language have been undertaken in the Republic of India since its foundation in1947 (it was included in the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution).Organisations like the Samskrta Bharati are conducting Speak Sanskrit workshops to popularise the language. The"All-India Sanskrit Festival" (since 2002) holds composition contests. The 1991 Indian census reported 49,736 fluentspeakers of Sanskrit. All India Radio transmits news bulletins in Sanskrit twice a day across the nation. Besides,Sanskrit learning programmes also feature on the list of most of the AIR broadcasting centres. The Mattur village incentral Karnataka claims to have native speakers of Sanskrit among its population. Inhabitants of all castes learnSanskrit starting in childhood and converse in the language. Even the local Muslims speak and converse in Sanskrit.Historically, the village was given by king Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire to Vedic scholars and theirfamilies. People in his kingdom spoke Kannada and Telugu. Another effort concentrates on the preservation of oraltransmission of the Vedas. Shri Vedabharathi is one such organisation based out of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh thathas been digitising the Vedas through voice recording the recitations of Vedic Pandits.Samskrita Bharati is an organisation working for Sanskrit revival. It is a tax exempt non-profit organisation with itsheadquarters in New Delhi, India. The International Centre, “Aksharam,” a complex located in Bangalore, India, isits international centre. It houses a research wing, a library, audio-visual lab, and staff quarters. It also has severalstate-units spread across the country both in the US and India. The US chapter is a registered nonprofit tax-exemptorganisation with its headquarters in San Jose, California.

School curriculaThe CBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education) of India has made Sanskrit a third language (though it is anoption for the school to adopt it or not, the other choice being the state's own official language) in the schools itgoverns. In such schools, learning Sanskrit is an option for grades 5 to 8 (Classes V to VIII). This is true of mostschools affiliated to the ICSE board too, especially in those states where the official language is Hindi. Sanskrit isalso taught in traditional gurukulas throughout India.

In the westSt. James Junior School in London, England offers Sanskrit as part of the curriculum. In USA, since Sep 2009, highschool students have been able receive credits (as Independent Study or towards Foreign Language requirements) bystudying Sanskrit, as part of the "SAFL: Samskritam as a Foreign Language" program coordinated by SamskritaBharati.[citation needed]

UniversitiesA list of Sanskrit universities is given below in chronological order:

Sanskrit 8

Sr No Year Est. Name Location Type Specialisation

1 1791 Sampurnanand Sanskrit University Varnasi Uttar Pradesh

2 1876 Samskrit Pathashala Mysore Karnataka

3 1961 Kameshwar Singh Darbhanga Sanskrit University Darbhanga Bihar

4 1962 Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha Tirupati

5 1962 Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha New Delhi Central Govt

6 1970 Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan New Delhi Central Govt Multi Campus

7 1981 Shri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishvavidayalaya Puri Odisha

8 1993 Sree Sankaracharya University Of Sanskrit Kalady Kerala

9 1997 Kaviguru Kalidas Sanskrit University Ramtek, (Nagpur) Maharashtra

10 2001 Jagadguru Ramanandacharya Rajasthan Sanskrit University Jaipur Rajasthan

11 2005 Shree Somnath Sanskrit University Somnath-Veraval, Junagarh Gujarat

12 2008 Maharshi Panini Sanskrit Evam Vedic Vishwavidyalaya Ujjain Madhya Pradesh

13 2011 Karnataka Samskrit University Bangalore Karnataka

Within other universities

Besides this, many universities throughout the world train and employ Sanskrit scholars - either within a separateSanskrit department, or within a broader focus area - for example, in South Asian studies/linguistics departments inuniversities across the West. For example, Delhi university has about 400 Sanskrit students, out of which about halfare reading it in post-graduation programmes.

European scholarship

A poem of the ancient Indian poet Vallana(between 900 and 1100 CE) on the side wall of

the building at the Haagweg 14 in Leiden,Netherlands.

European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by Heinrich Roth(1620–1668)and Johann Ernst Hanxleden (1681–1731),[7] is regarded as responsiblefor the discovery of the Indo-European language family by Sir WilliamJones. This scholarship played an important role in the development ofWestern philology, or historical linguistics.

Sir William Jones, speaking to The Asiatic Society in Calcutta on 2February 1786, said:

The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of awonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, morecopious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined thaneither, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, bothin the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, thancould possibly have been produced by accident; so strong, indeed, that no philologer could examinethem all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, nolonger exists.

Sanskrit 9

British attitudes

According to Thomas R. Trautmann, after the 18th-century wave of "Indomania", i.e. enthusiasm for Indian cultureand for Sanskrit, as exemplified in the positions of Orientalist scholars such as Sir William Jones, a certain hostilityto Sanskrit and to Indian culture in general began to assert itself in Britain in the early 19th century. The hostilitywas manifest by a neglect of Sanskrit in British academia, as compared to other European countries, and was part ofa general push in favor of the idea that India should be culturally, religiously and linguistically assimilated to Britainas far as possible. Traufmann considers that this British hostility to Sanskrit had two separate and logically oppositesources: one was "British Indophobia", which he calls essentially a developmentalist, progressivist, liberal, andnon-racial-essentialist critique of Hindu civilisation as an aid for the improvement of India along European lines. Theother was race science, which was a theorisation of the English "common-sense view" that Indians constituted a"separate, inferior and unimprovable race".

PhonologyClassical Sanskrit distinguishes about 36 phonemes. There is, however, some allophony and the writing systemsused for Sanskrit generally indicate this, thus distinguishing 48 sounds.The sounds are traditionally listed in the order vowels (Ach), diphthongs (Hal), anusvara and visarga, plosives(Sparśa) and nasals (starting in the back of the mouth and moving forward), and finally the liquids and fricatives,written in IAST as follows:

a ā i ī u ū ṛ ṝ ḷ ḹ ; e ai o auṃ ḥk kh g gh ṅ; c ch j jh ñ; ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ; t th d dh n; p ph b bh my r l v; ś ṣ s h

An alternate traditional ordering is that of the Shiva Sutra of Pāṇini.

VowelsThe vowels of Classical Sanskrit written in Devanagari, as a syllable-initial letter and as a diacritic mark on theconsonant प् (/p/), pronunciation transcribed in IPA, IAST, and approximate equivalent in English:

Letter प् IPA IAST English equivalent (GA unless stated otherwise)

अ प /ɐ/ or /ə/ a short near-open central vowel or schwa: u in bunny

आ पा /ɑː/ ā long open back unrounded vowel: a in father (RP)

इ पि /i/ i short close front unrounded vowel: e in england

ई पी /iː/ ī long close front unrounded vowel: ee in feet

उ पु /u/ u short close back rounded vowel: oo in foot

ऊ पू /uː/ ū long close back rounded vowel: oo in cool

ऋ पृ /r̩/ ṛ syllabic alveolar trill: closest to er in butter in rhotic accents

ॠ पॄ /r̩ː/ ṝ syllabic alveolar trill: closest to ir in bird in rhotic accents

ऌ पॢ /l̩/ ḷ syllabic dental lateral approximant: le in turtle

ॡ पॣ /l̩ː/ ḹ syllabic dental lateral approximant: longer le

ए पे /eː/ e long close-mid front unrounded vowel: a in bane (some speakers)

ऐ पै /əi/ ai a long diphthong: i in ice, i in kite (US, Canadian, and Scottish English)

ओ पो /oː/ o long close-mid back rounded vowel: o in bone (Scottish English)

औ पौ /əu/ au a long diphthong: ou in house (Canadian English)

Sanskrit 10

The long vowels are pronounced twice as long as their short counterparts. Also, there exists a third, extra-long lengthfor most vowels, called pluti, which is used in various cases, but particularly in the vocative. The pluti is notaccepted by all grammarians.The vowels /e/ and /o/ continue as allophonic variants of Proto-Indo-Iranian /ai/, /au/ and are categorised asdiphthongs by Sanskrit grammarians even though they are realised phonetically as simple long vowels.Additional points:• There are some additional signs traditionally listed in tables of the Devanagari script:

• The diacritic ं called anusvāra, (IAST: ṃ). It is used both to indicate the nasalisation of the vowel in the syllable[◌̃] and to represent the sound of a syllabic /n/ or /m/; e.g. पं /pəŋ/.

• The diacritic ः called visarga, represents /əh/ (IAST: ḥ); e.g. पः /pəh/.• The diacritic ँ called chandrabindu, not traditionally included in Devanagari charts for Sanskrit, is used

interchangeably with the anusvāra to indicate nasalisation of the vowel, primarily in Vedic notation; e.g. पँ/pə̃/.

• If a lone consonant needs to be written without any following vowel, it is given a halanta/virāma diacritic below(प्).

• The vowel /aː/ in Sanskrit is realised as being more central and less back than the closest English approximation,which is /ɑː/. But the grammarians have classified it as a back vowel.

• The ancient Sanskrit grammarians classified the vowel system as velars, retroflexes, palatals and plosives ratherthan as back, central and front vowels. Hence ए and ओ are classified respectively as palato-velar (a+i) andlabio-velar (a+u) vowels respectively. But the grammarians have classified them as diphthongs and in prosody,each is given two mātrās. This does not necessarily mean that they are proper diphthongs, but neither excludes thepossibility that they could have been proper diphthongs at a very ancient stage. These vowels are pronounced aslong /eː/ and /oː/ respectively by learned Sanskrit Brahmans and priests of today. Other than the "four"diphthongs, Sanskrit usually disallows any other diphthong—vowels in succession, where they occur, areconverted to semivowels according to sandhi rules.

ConsonantsIAST and Devanagari notations are given, with approximate IPA values in square brackets.

Labialओष्ठ्य

oṣṭhya

Dentalदन्त्य

dantya

Retroflexमूर्धन्य

mūrdhanya

Palatalतालव्य

tālavya

Velarकण्ठ्य

kaṇṭhya

Glottal

Stopस्पर्श

sparśa

Unaspiratedअल्पप्राण

alpaprāṇa

p प [p] b ब [b] t त [t̪] d द [d̪] ṭ ट [ʈ ] ḍ ड [ɖ ] c च [c] j ज [ɟ] k क [k] g ग [ɡ]

Aspiratedमहाप्राण

mahāprāṇa

ph फ[pʰ]

bh भ[bʱ]

th थ[t̪ʰ]

dh ध[d̪ʱ]

ṭh ठ [ʈʰ] ḍh ढ [ɖʱ] ch छ[cʰ]

jh झ[ɟʱ]

kh ख[kʰ]

gh घ[ɡʱ]

Nasalअनुनासिक

anunāsika

m म [m] n न [n̪] ṇ ण [ɳ ] (ñ ञ [ ɲ]) ṅ ङ [ŋ]

Semivowelअन्तस्थ

antastha

v व [w] y य [j]

Liquidढ्रव

drava

l ल [l̪] r र [ɽ]Wikipedia:Disputedstatement

Sanskrit 11

Fricativeऊष्मन्

ūṣman

s स [s̪] ṣ ष [ʂ] ś श [ɕ] ḥ ः[h]

h ह[ɦ]

The table below shows the traditional listing of the Sanskrit consonants with the (nearest) equivalents in English (aspronounced in General American and Received Pronunciation or the Indian English pronunciation if specified),French and Spanish. Each consonant shown below is deemed to be followed by the neutral vowel schwa (/ə/), and isnamed in the table as such.

Stops—sparśa

UnaspiratedVoiceless

alpaprāṇa śvāsa

AspiratedVoiceless

mahāprāna śvāsa

UnaspiratedVoiced

alpaprāṇa nāda

AspiratedVoiced

mahāprāna nāda

Nasalanunāsika nāda

Velarkaṇṭhya

क/kə/; English: skip

ख/kʰə/; English:

cow

ग/ɡə/; English: game

घ/ɡʱə/; no

equivalent

ङ/ŋə/; English: ring

Palataltālavya

च/cə/; no equivalent

छ/cʰə/; no

equivalent

ज/ɟə/; no equivalent

झ/ɟʱə/; no

equivalent

ञ[ ɲə]; French: agneau,

Spanish ñ

Retroflexmūrdhanya

ट/ʈə/; English: stop

ठ/ʈʰə/; English:

time

ड/ɖə/; English (Indian): door

ढ/ɖʱə/; no

equivalent

ण/ɳə/; no English equivalent

apico-Dentaldantya

त/t̪ə/; French, Spanish:

tomate

थ/t̪ʰə/; Aspirated /t̪/

द/d̪ə/; French: dans, Spanish

donde

ध/d̪ʱə/; Aspirated

/d̪/

न/n̪ə/; English name

Labialoṣṭhya

प/pə/; English: spin

फ/pʰə/; English:

pork

ब/bə/; English: bone

भ/bʱə/; no

equivalent

म/mə/; English: mine

Non-Plosives/Sonorants

Palataltālavya

Retroflexmūrdhanya

Dentaldantya

Labial/Glottaloṣṭhya

Approximantantastha

य/jə/; English: you

र/ɽə/; no equivalent

ल/l̪ə/; French, Spanish: la

व (labio-velar)/wə/; English w

Sibilant/Fricativeūṣmang

श/ɕə/; similar to English: ship

ष/ʂə/; Retroflex form of /ʃ/

स/s̪ə/; English: same

ह (glottal)/ɦə/; English ahead

Sanskrit 12

AccentVedic Sanskrit had pitch accent: Some syllables had a high tone, and the following syllable a falling tone, thoughthrough ellipsis a falling tone may occur elsewhere.Classical Sanskrit ...

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it [8].

Phonology and sandhiThe Sanskrit vowels are as discussed in the section above. The long syllabic l (ḹ) is not attested, and is only discussedby grammarians for systematic reasons. Its short counterpart ḷ occurs in a single root only, kḷp "to order, array". Longsyllabic r (ṝ) is also quite marginal, occurring in the genitive plural of r-stems (e.g. mātṛ "mother" and pitṛ "father"have gen.pl. mātṝṇām and pitṝṇām). i, u, ṛ, ḷ are vocalic allophones of consonantal y, v, r, l. There are thus only 5invariably vocalic phonemes,

a, ā, ī, ū, ṝ.Visarga ḥ ः is an allophone of r and s, and anusvara ṃ, Devanagari ं of any nasal, both in pausa (i.e., the nasalisedvowel). The exact pronunciation of the three sibilants may vary, but they are distinct phonemes. An aspirated voicedsibilant /zʱ/ was inherited by Indo-Aryan from Proto-Indo-Iranian but lost shortly before the time of the Rigveda(aspirated fricatives are exceedingly rare in any language). The retroflex consonants are somewhat marginalphonemes, often being conditioned by their phonetic environment; they do not continue a PIE series and are oftenascribed by some linguists to the substratal influence of Dravidian or other substrate languages. The nasal [ɲ] is aconditioned allophone of /n/ (/n/ and /ɳ/ are distinct phonemes—aṇu 'minute', 'atomic' [nom. sg. neutr. of anadjective] is distinctive from anu 'after', 'along'; phonologically independent /ŋ/ occurs only marginally, e.g. in prāṅ'directed forwards/towards' [nom. sg. masc. of an adjective]). There are thus 31 consonantal or semi-vocalicphonemes, consisting of four/five kinds of stops realised both with or without aspiration and both voiced andvoiceless, three nasals, four semi-vowels or liquids, and four fricatives, written in IAST transliteration as follows:

k, kh, g, gh; c, ch, j, jh; ṭ, ṭh, ḍ, ḍh; t, th, d, dh; p, ph, b, bh; m, n, ṇ; y, r, l, v; ś, ṣ, s, hor a total of 36 unique Sanskrit phonemes altogether.The phonological rules which are applied when combining morphemes to a word, and when combining words to asentence, are collectively called sandhi "composition". Texts are written phonetically, with sandhi applied (exceptfor the so-called padapāṭha).

Writing system

Kashmiri Shaivaite manuscript in the Sharadascript (c. 17th century)

Sanskrit was spoken in an oral society, and the oral tradition wasmaintained through the development of early classical Sanskritliterature.[9] Writing was not introduced to India until after Sanskrithad evolved into the Prakrits; when it was written, the choice ofwriting system was influenced by the regional scripts of the scribes.Therefore, Sanskrit has no native script of its own. As such, virtuallyall of the major writing systems of South Asia have been used for theproduction of Sanskrit manuscripts. Since the late 19th century,Devanagari has become the de facto standard writing system forSanskrit publication, quite possibly because of the European practice of printing Sanskritic texts in this script.Devanāgari is written from left to right, lacks distinct letter cases, and is recognisable by a distinctive horizontal linerunning along the tops of the letters that links them together.

Sanskrit 13

"My name is 'incomplete third word is the name'"(written) in Sanskrit

The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit date to the 1st centuryBCE.[10] They are in the Brahmi script, which was originally used forPrakrit, not Sanskrit. It has been described as a "paradox" that the firstevidence of written Sanskrit occurs centuries later than that of thePrakrit languages which are its linguistic descendants.[11] WhenSanskrit was written down, it was first used for texts of anadministrative, literary or scientific nature. The sacred texts werepreserved orally, and were set down in writing, "reluctantly"(according to one commentator), and at a comparatively late date.

Sanskrit in modern Indian and other Brahmi scripts. May Śiva bless thosewho take delight in the language of the gods. (Kalidasa)

Brahmi evolved into a multiplicity of scripts ofthe Brahmic family, many of which were used towrite Sanskrit. Roughly contemporary with theBrahmi, the Kharosthi script was used in thenorthwest of the subcontinent. Later (around the4th to 8th centuries CE) the Gupta script, derivedfrom Brahmi, became prevalent. From ca. the 8thcentury, the Sharada script evolved out of theGupta script. The latter was displaced in its turnby Devanagari from ca. the 11/12th century, withintermediary stages such as the Siddham script. InEastern India, the Bengali script and, later, theOriya script, were used. In the south whereDravidian languages predominate, scripts used forSanskrit include Kannada, Telugu, Tamil,Malayalam and Grantha.

Romanisation

Since the late 18th century, Sanskrit has beentransliterated using the Latin alphabet. The systemmost commonly used today is the IAST(International Alphabet of SanskritTransliteration), which has been the academicstandard since 1888/1912. ASCII-basedtransliteration schemes have evolved due todifficulties representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. These include Harvard-Kyoto and ITRANS, atransliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email, for considerations ofspeed of entry as well as rendering issues. With the wide availability of Unicode-aware web browsers, IAST hasbecome common online.

It is also possible to type using an alphanumeric keyboard and transliterate to Devanagari using software like MacOS X's international support.European scholars in the 19th century generally preferred Devanagari for the transcription and reproduction of wholetexts and lengthy excerpts. However, references to individual words and names in texts composed in Europeanlanguages were usually represented with Roman transliteration. From the 20th century onwards, due to productioncosts, textual editions edited by Western scholars have mostly been in Romanised transliteration.

Sanskrit 14

Grammar

Grammatical traditionSanskrit grammatical tradition (vyākaraṇa, one of the six Vedanga disciplines) began in late Vedic India andculminated in the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini, which consists of 3990 sutras (ca. 5th century BCE). About a century afterPāṇini (around 400 BCE) Kātyāyana composed Vārtikas on Pāṇinian sũtras. Patañjali, who lived three centuries afterPāṇini, wrote the Mahābhāṣya, the "Great Commentary" on the Aṣṭādhyāyī and Vārtikas. Because of these threeancient Sanskrit grammarians this grammar is called Trimuni Vyākarana. To understand the meaning of sutrasJayaditya and Vāmana wrote the commentary named Kāsikā 600 CE. Pāṇinian grammar is based on 14 Shiva sutras(aphorisms). Here whole Mātrika (alphabet) is abbreviated. This abbreviation is called Pratyāhara.

VerbsSanskrit has ten classes of verbs divided into in two broad groups: athematic and thematic. The thematic verbs are socalled because an a, called the theme vowel, is inserted between the stem and the ending. This serves to make thethematic verbs generally more regular. Exponents used in verb conjugation include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, andreduplication. Every root has (not necessarily all distinct) zero, guṇa, and vṛddhi grades. If V is the vowel of the zerograde, the guṇa-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the vṛddhi-grade vowel as ā + V.The verb tenses (a very inexact application of the word, since more distinctions than simply tense are expressed) areorganised into four 'systems' (as well as gerunds and infinitives, and such creatures as intensives/frequentatives,desideratives, causatives, and benedictives derived from more basic forms) based on the different stem forms(derived from verbal roots) used in conjugation. There are four tense systems:• Present (Present, Imperfect,[citation needed] Imperative, Optative)•• Perfect•• Aorist• Future (Future, Conditional)

NounsSanskrit is a highly inflected language with three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and threenumbers (singular, plural, dual). It has eight cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative,genitive, and locative.The number of actual declensions is debatable. Pāṇini identifies six karakas corresponding to the nominative,accusative, dative, instrumental, locative, and ablative cases. Pāṇini defines them as follows (Ashtadhyayi,I.4.24–54):1. Apadana (lit. 'take off'): "(that which is) firm when departure (takes place)." This is the equivalent of the ablative

case, which signifies a stationary object from which movement proceeds.2. Sampradana ('bestowal'): "he whom one aims at with the object". This is equivalent to the dative case, which

signifies a recipient in an act of giving or similar acts.3. Karana ("instrument") "that which effects most." This is equivalent to the instrumental case.4. Adhikarana ('location'): or "substratum." This is equivalent to the locative case.5. Karman ('deed'/'object'): "what the agent seeks most to attain". This is equivalent to the accusative case.6. Karta ('agent'): "he/that which is independent in action". This is equivalent to the nominative case. (On the basis

of Scharfe, 1977: 94)

Sanskrit 15

Personal pronouns and determinersSanskrit pronouns are declined for case, number, and gender. The pronominal declension applies to a few adjectivesas well. Many pronouns have alternative enclitic forms.The first and second person pronouns are declined for the most part alike, having by analogy assimilated themselveswith one another. Where two forms are given, the second is enclitic and an alternative form. Ablatives in singularand plural may be extended by the syllable -tas; thus mat or mattas, asmat or asmattas. Sanskrit does not have truethird person pronouns, but its demonstratives fulfill this function instead by standing independently without amodified substantive.There are four different demonstratives in Sanskrit: tat, etat, idam, and adas. etat indicates greater proximity thantat. While idam is similar to etat, adas refers to objects that are more remote than tat. eta, is declined almostidentically to ta. Its paradigm is obtained by prefixing e- to all the forms of ta. As a result of sandhi, the masculineand feminine singular forms transform into eṣas and eṣã.The enclitic pronoun ena is found only in a few oblique cases and numbers. Interrogative pronouns all begin with k-,and decline just as tat does, with the initial t- being replaced by k-. The only exception to this are the singular neuternominative and accusative forms, which are both kim and not the expected *kat. For example, the singular femininegenitive interrogative pronoun, "of whom?", is kasyãḥ. Indefinite pronouns are formed by adding the participles api,cid, or cana after the appropriate interrogative pronouns. All relative pronouns begin with y-, and decline just as tatdoes. The correlative pronouns are identical to the tat series.In addition to the pronouns described above, some adjectives follow the pronominal declension. Unless otherwisenoted, their declension is identical to tat.• eka: "one", "a certain". (singular neuter nominative and accusative forms are both ekam)• anya: "another".• sarva: "all", "every". (singular neuter nominative and accusative forms are both sarvam)• para: "the other". (singular neuter nominative and accusative forms are both param)• sva: "self" (a reflexive adjective). (singular neuter nominative and accusative forms are both svam)

CompoundsOne other notable feature of the nominal system is the very common use of nominal compounds, which may be huge(10+ words) as in some modern languages such as German and Finnish. Nominal compounds occur with variousstructures, however morphologically speaking they are essentially the same. Each noun (or adjective) is in its (weak)stem form, with only the final element receiving case inflection. The four principle categories of nominal compoundsare:[12]

• Dvandva (co-ordinative)These consist of two or more noun stems, connected in sense with 'and'. Examples arerāma-lakşmaņau—Rama and Lakshmana, rāma-lakşmaņa-bharata-śatrughnāh—Rama, Lakshmana, Bharataand Satrughna, and pāņipādam—limbs, literally hands and feet, from pāņi = hand and pāda = foot.

• Tatpuruṣa (determinative)There are many tatpuruṣas; in a tatpuruṣa the first component is in a case relationship with another. Forexample, a doghouse is a dative compound, a house for a dog; other examples include instrumentalrelationships ("thunderstruck") and locative relationships ("towndwelling").

• Karmadhāraya (descriptive)A compound where the relation of the first member to the last is appositional, attributive or adverbial; e.g.,uluka-yatu (owl+demon) is a demon in the shape of an owl. Karmadhārayas are considered by some to betatpuruṣas.

Sanskrit 16

• Bahuvrīhi (possessive/exocentric)Bahuvrīhi compounds refer to a compound noun that refers to a thing which is itself not part of the compound.For example the word bahuvrīhi itself, from bahu = much and vrīhi = rice, denotes a rich person—one who hasmuch rice.

SyntaxBecause of Sanskrit's complex declension system the word order is free. In usage, there is a strong tendency towardsubject–object–verb (SOV), which was the original system in place in Vedic prose. However, there are exceptionswhen word pairs cannot be transposed.

NumeralsThe numbers from one to ten:1.1. éka-2.2. dva-3.3. tri-4.4. catúr-5.5. páñcan-6.6. ṣáṣ-7.7. saptán-8.8. aṣṭá-9.9. návan-10.10. dáśan-The numbers one through four are declined. Éka is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form doesnot occur. Dvá appears only in the dual. Trí and catúr are declined irregularly:

Three Four

Masculine Neuter Feminine Masculine Neuter Feminine

Nominative tráyas trī́ṇi tisrás catvā́ras catvā́ri cátasras

Accusative trīn trī́ṇi tisrás catúras catvā́ri cátasras

Instrumental tribhís tisṛ́bhis catúrbhis catasṛ́bhis

Dative tribhyás tisṛ́bhyas catúrbhyas catasṛ́bhyas

Ablative tribhyás tisṛ́bhyas catúrbhyas catasṛ́bhyas

Genitive triyāṇā́m tisṛṇā́m caturṇā́m catasṛṇā́m

Locative triṣú tisṛ́ṣu catúrṣu catasṛ́ṣu

Some Peculiar Characteristics of SanskritIn the introduction to his celebrated translation of Vidyakara's 'Subhasitaratnakosa', the eminent sanskritist Daniel H.H. Ingalls describes some peculiar charactereistics of the Sanskrit language. He refers to the enormous vocabulary of Sanskrit, and also of the presence of a larger choice of synonyms in Sanskrit than any other language he knew of. Further,he writes, just as there exist a vast number of synonyms for almost any word in Sanskrit, there also exist synonymous constructions. Ingalls writes that in elementary Sanskrit examinations he would ask his students to write in Sanskrit the sentence 'You must fetch the horse' in ten different ways. Actually, Ingalls explains, it is possible to write the sentence in Sanskrit in around fifteen different ways 'by using active or passive constructions, imperative or optative, an auxiliary verb, or any of the three gerundive forms, each of which, by the way, gives a different metrical

Sanskrit 17

pattern'. Ingalls emphasizes that while these constructions differ formally, emotionally they are identical andcompletely interchangeable. He comments that in any natural language this would be impossible. Ingalls uses thisand other arguments to show that Sanskrit is not a natural language, but an 'artificial' language. By 'artificial', heexplains he means it was learned after some other Indian language had been learned by simple conditioning. Ingallswrites: 'Every Indian, one may suppose, grew up learning in a natural way the language of his mother and hisplaymates. Only after this and if he belonged to the priesthood or the nobility or to such a professional caste as thatof the clerks, the physicians, or the astrologers would he learn Sanskrit...As a general rule, Sanskrit was not thelanguage of the family. It furnished no subconscious symbols for the impressions which we receive in childhood norfor the emotions which form our character in early adolescence.'

Influence on other languages

Indic languagesSanskrit's greatest influence, presumably, is that which it exerted on languages of India that grew from its vocabularyand grammatical base; for instance, Hindi is a "Sanskritised register" of the Khariboli dialect. However, all modernIndo-Aryan languages, as well as Munda and Dravidian languages, have borrowed many words either directly fromSanskrit (tatsama words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (tadbhava words). Words originating inSanskrit are estimated to constitute roughly fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages,[13] andthe literary forms of (Dravidian) Malayalam and Kannada. Literary texts in Telugu are lexically Sanskrit orSanskritised to an enormous extent, perhaps seventy percent or more.Sanskrit is recognised as a storehouse of scripture and as the language of prayers in Hinduism. Like Latin's influenceon European languages and Classical Chinese's influence on East Asian languages, Sanskrit has influenced mostIndian languages. While vernacular prayer is common, Sanskrit mantras are recited by millions of Hindus, and mosttemple functions are conducted entirely in Sanskrit, often Vedic in form. Of modern day south Asian languages,Hindi, Nepali, Bengali, Assamese, Konkani, and Marathi still retain a largely Sanskrit and Prakrit vocabulary base,while Hindi and Urdu tend to be more heavily weighted with Arabic and Persian influence. The Indian nationalanthem, Jana Gana Mana, is written in a literary form of Bengali (known as sadhu bhasha); it is Sanskritised to berecognisable but is still archaic to the modern ear. The national song of India, Vande Mataram, which was originallya poem composed by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and taken from his book called 'Anandamath', is in a similarlyhighly Sanskritised Bengali. Malayalam, Telugu and Kannada also combine a great deal of Sanskrit vocabulary.Sanskrit also has influence on Chinese through Buddhist Sutras. Chinese words like 剎 那 chànà (Devanagari: क्षणkṣaṇa 'instantaneous period of time') were borrowed from Sanskrit.

Interaction with other languagesSanskrit and related languages have also influenced their Sino-Tibetan-speaking neighbors to the north through thespread of Buddhist texts in translation. Buddhism was spread to China by Mahayanist missionaries sent by EmperorAshoka mostly through translations of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit texts, and many terms weretransliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. (Although Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit is not Sanskrit,properly speaking, its grammar and vocabulary are substantially the same, both because of genetic relationship, andbecause of conscious implementation of Pāṇinian standardisations on the part of composers. Buddhist textscomposed in Sanskrit proper were primarily found in philosophical schools like the Madhyamaka.) The situation inTibet is similar; many Sanskrit texts survive only in Tibetan translation (in the Tanjur).In Southeast Asia, languages such as Thai and Lao contain many loan words from Sanskrit, as do Khmer,Vietnamese to a lesser extent, through Sinified hybrid Sanskrit. For example, in Thai, the Rāvana—the emperor ofSri Lanka is called 'Thosakanth' which is a derivation of his Sanskrit name 'Dashakanth' ("of ten necks").

Sanskrit 18

Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in Austronesian languages, such as Javanese particularly the old form fromwhich nearly half the vocabulary is derived from the language.[14] Other Austronesian languages, such as traditionalMalay, modern Indonesian, also derive much of their vocabulary from Sanskrit, albeit to a lesser extent, with a largeproportion of words being derived from Arabic. Similarly, Philippine languages such as Tagalog have many Sanskritloanwords, although more are derived from Spanish.A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word bhāṣā, or spoken language, whichis used to mean language in general, for example bahasa in Malay, Indonesian and Tausug, basa in Javanese,Sundanese, and Balinese, phasa in Thai and Lao, bhasa in Burmese, and phiesa in Khmer.

Popular culture in other languagesRecital of Sanskrit shlokas as background chorus in films, television advertisements and as slogans for corporateorganisations has become a trend. The opera Satyagraha by Philip Glass uses texts from the Bhagavad Gita, sung inthe original Sanskrit.Recently, Sanskrit also made an appearance in Western pop music in two recordings by Madonna. One,"Shanti/Ashtangi", from the 1998 album Ray of Light, is the traditional Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga chant referencedabove set to music. The second, "Cyber-raga", released in 2000 as a B-side to Madonna's album Music, is aSanskrit-language ode of devotion to a higher power and a wish for peace on earth. The climactic battle theme of TheMatrix Revolutions features a choir singing a Sanskrit prayer from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad in the closing titlesof the movie. Composer John Williams featured choirs singing in Sanskrit for Indiana Jones and the Temple ofDoom and in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace.[15] The lyrics of The Child In Us by Enigma also containsSanskrit, latin and English verses.The Sky1 version of the title sequence in season one of Battlestar Galactica 2004 features the Gayatri Mantra, takenfrom the Rig Veda (3.62.10). The composition was written by miniseries composer Richard Gibbs.Sanskrit has also seen a significant revival in Mainland China. Musicians such as Sa Dingding have written popsongs in Sanskrit.[16]

Computational linguisticsThere have been suggestions to use Sanskrit as a metalanguage for knowledge representation in e.g. machinetranslation, and other areas of natural language processing because of its relatively high regular structure.[17] This isdue to Classical Sanskrit being a regularised, prescriptivist form abstracted from the much more complex and richerVedic Sanskrit.

Citations[1][1] "Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit - Page 11"[2] Indian Express, Friday, 14th march 2003 (http:/ / www. chitrapurmath. net/ sanskrit/ sanskrit_lifestyle. htm) Thehindu.com (http:/ / www.

hindu. com/ fr/ 2009/ 07/ 31/ stories/ 2009073150380200. htm)[3] Masica, pp. 36–37[4][4] Masica, p. 38[5] Hock, H. "Language death phenomena in Sanskrit: Grammatical evidence for attrition in contemporary spoken Sanskrit" in Studies in the

Linguistic Sciences v.13 no.2 1983 Dept. of Linguistics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Dept. of Linguistics[6] A notable exception are the military references of Nīlakaṇṭha Caturdhara's 17th-century commentary on the Mahābhārata, according to .[7][7] T. K. John, "Research and Studies by Western Missionaries and Scholars in Sanskrit Language and Literature," in the St. Thomas Christian

Encyclopaedia of India, Vol. III, Ollur[Trichur] 2010 Ed. George Menachery, pp.79 - 83[8] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Sanskrit& action=edit[9][9] Salomon (1998), p. 7[10][10] Salomon (1998), p. 86[11] In northern India, there are Brahmi inscriptions dating from the 3rd century BCE onwards, the oldest appearing on the famous Prakrit pillar

inscriptions of king Ashoka. The earliest South Indian inscriptions in Tamil Brahmi, written in early Tamil, belong to the same period.

Sanskrit 19

[12] Lennart Warnemyr. Compounds (http:/ / www. warnemyr. com/ skrgram/ grammar/ morphology/ compounds. html)[13][13] , cited in[14] See this page from the Indonesian Wikipedia for a list[15] http:/ / www. starwarsfaq. com/ e1faq03. html[16] BBC - Awards for World Music 2008 - Asia/Pacific (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio3/ worldmusic/ a4wm2008/ 2008_sa_ding_ding. shtml),

broadcast on BBC Radio 3 and BBC Four television.[17][17] First suggested by

ReferencesThis article incorporates material from the Wikia article " Termination of spoken Sanskrit (http:/ / santanadharma.wikia. com/ wiki/ Termination_of_spoken_Sanskrit)", which is licensed under the Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.

• Abhyankar, Kashinath V. (1986), A dictionary of Sanskrit Grammar, Gaekwad's Oriental Series 134, Baroda:Oriental Institute

• Briggs, Rick (1985), "Knowledge Representation in Sanskrit and Artificial Intelligence (PDF)" (http:/ / www.aaai. org/ ojs/ index. php/ aimagazine/ article/ viewArticle/ 466), AI Magazine 6 (1)

• Burrow, T. (2001), Sanskrit language, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1767-2• Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (1960), Indo-Aryan and Hindi, Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay• Edgerton, F. (1953), Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit grammar and dictionary, New Haven: Yale University Press• van Gulik, Robert (1956), Siddham; an essay on the history of Sanskrit studies in China and Japan, Nagpur:

International Academy of Indian Culture, ISBN 81-7742-038-0• Hanneder, J. (2002), "On "The Death of Sanskrit"" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ n5380t62066168r7/

), Indo-Iranian Journal 45 (4): 293–310(18), doi: 10.1023/A:1021366131934 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1023/A:1021366131934)

• Hanneder, J. (2009), "Modernes Sanskrit: eine vergessene Literatur" (http:/ / indologica. de/ drupal/ ?q=node/749), in Straube, Martin, Pāsādikadānaṃ : Festschrift für Bhikkhu Pāsādika, Indica et Tibetica Verlag,pp. 205–228

• Hatcher, Brian A. (2007), "Sanskrit and the morning after" (http:/ / ier. sagepub. com/ content/ 44/ 3/ 333.abstract), Indian Economic & Social History Review 44 (3): 333–361, doi: 10.1177/001946460704400303 (http:/ /dx. doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 001946460704400303), retrieved 2010-09-15

• MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (1900), A History of Sanskrit Literature, Kessinger Publishing (2004),ISBN 1-4179-0619-7

• Mahadevan, I (2003), Early Tamil epigraphy from the earliest times to the sixth century Common Era,Chennai/Cambridge

• Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=J3RSHWePhXwC),Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2

• Minkowski, Christopher (2004), "Nīlakaṇṭha's instruments of war: Modern, vernacular, barbarous", The IndianEconomic and Social History Review 41 (4): 365–385, doi: 10.1177/001946460404100402 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/10. 1177/ 001946460404100402)

• Monier-Williams, Monier (1898), A Sanskrit-English Dictionary• Oberlies, Thomas (2003), A Grammar of Epic Sanskrit, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-014448-4• Pollock, Sheldon (2001), "The Death of Sanskrit" (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ itc/ mealac/ pollock/ sks/ papers/

death_of_sanskrit. pdf), Comparative Studies in Society and History 43 (2): 392–426, doi:10.1017/S001041750100353X (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1017/ S001041750100353X)

• Pollock, Sheldon I. (2006), The language of the gods in the world of men: Sanskrit, culture, and power inpremodern India, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-24500-6

• Staal, J.F. (1963), "Sanskrit and Sanskritisation", The Journal of Asian Studies (Association for Asian Studies) 22 (3): 261–275, doi: 10.2307/2050186 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2307/ 2050186), JSTOR  2050186 (http:/ / www.

Sanskrit 20

jstor. org/ stable/ 2050186)• Tiwari, Bholanath (1955), भाषा विज्ञान (Bhasha Vijnan), ISBN 0-7007-1382-4• Warder, A.K. (1972), Indian kāvya Literature, Literary Criticism 1, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass• Whitney, William Dwight (1889), Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language and the Older

Dialects (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=VHYKAAAAIAAJ), Breitkopf & Härtel• Zoetmulder, Petrus Josephus (1982), Old Javanese-English dictionary, The Hague: Nijhoff• Salomon, Richard (1998), Indian epigraphy: a guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other

Indo-Aryan languages (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=XYrG07qQDxkC), New York: Oxford University Press,ISBN 0-19-509984-2

• Stiehl, Ulrich (2011), The Original Pronunciation of Sanskrit (http:/ / www. lit-on. de/ v/ artikel/sanskrit-kompendium/ ), Germany: Verlag Forkel, ISBN 978-3-7719-0086-1

• Statesman article. Sanskrit studies in Calcutta (http:/ / www. thestatesman. net/ page. arcview. php?clid=16&id=169574& usrsess=1)Wikipedia:Link rot

• Expressindia article. studies in Sanskrit (http:/ / www. expressindia. com/ latest-news/First-private-university-offers-unique-courses/ 317475/ Graduate)Wikipedia:Link rot

Further reading

Introductions• Cameron, Bruce (1992), Sanskrit Pronunciation, S.l.: Theosophical Univ Press, ISBN 1-55700-021-2• Coulson, M. (2003), Teach Yourself Sanskrit, London: Teach Yourself, ISBN 0-340-85990-3• Goldman, Robert P. (1999), Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language, Berkeley: Centre for

South Asia Studies, University of California, ISBN 0-944613-40-3• Kale, M. R. (Moreshwar Ramchandra) (1988) [1894], A Higher Sanskrit Grammar (http:/ / www.

sanskrit-lexicon. uni-koeln. de/ scans/ KALEScan/ disp1/ index1. php?sfx=png), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 81-208-0178-4

• Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1997), A Sanskrit Grammar for Students, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld,ISBN 81-246-0094-5

• Maurer, Walter Harding (2000), The Sanskrit Language: An Introductory Grammar and Reader, Richmond,Surrey: Curzon Press, ISBN 0-7007-1382-4

• Seth, Sanjay (2007), Subject Lessons: The Western Education of Colonial India (http:/ / books. google. co. in/books?id=QU9glkC4ceMC), Duke University Press

• Shastri, Vagish (2000), Conversational Sanskrit, Varanasi: Vāgyoga Chetanāpitham, ISBN 81-85570-12-4• Monier-Williams, Monier (1846), A Practical Grammar Of The Sanskrit Language Arranged With Reference To

The Classical Languages Of Europe For The Use Of English Students (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=REQhAAAAMAAJ), W. H. Allen & co.

Grammars• Whitney, William Dwight The Roots, Verb-Forms and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language: (A

Supplement to His Sanskrit Grammar)• Wackernagel, Debrunner, Altindische Grammatik, Göttingen.

• vol. I. Phonology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN1421247127& id=mWaIUMIoUvkC&dq=Altindische) Jacob Wackernagel (1896)

• vol. II.1. Introduction to morphology, nominal composition (http:/ / books. google. com/books?vid=ISBN1421247100& id=qql6RRqTAuIC& dq=Altindische), Wackernagel (1905)

•• vol. II.2. nominal suffixes, J. Wackernagel and Albert Debrunner (1954)

Sanskrit 21

•• vol. III. nominal inflection, numerals, pronouns, Wackernagel and Debrunner (1930)• Delbrück, B. Altindische Tempuslehre (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN1421246880&

id=_-9K_xT8OBAC& dq=Altindische) (1876)

Dictionaries• Otto Böhtlingk, Rudolph Roth, Petersburger Wörterbuch, 7 vols., 1855–75• Otto Böhtlingk, Sanskrit Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung 1883–86 (1998 reprint, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi)• Manfred Mayrhofer, Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen, 1956–76• Manfred Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen, 3 vols., 2742 pages, 2001, ISBN

3-8253-1477-4

External links• Academic Courses on Sanskrit Around The World (http:/ / www. montclair. edu/ RISA/ d-studies. html)• Samskrita Bharati (http:/ / samskrita-bharati. org/ ), organisation supporting the usage of Sanskrit• Sanskrit Alphabet (http:/ / www. user. uni-hannover. de/ nhtcapri/ sanskrit-alphabet. html) in Devanagari,

Gujarati, Bengali, and Thai scripts with an extensive list of Devanagari, Gujarati, and Bengali conjuncts

Software• Romanised Nepali Unicode Keyboard (http:/ / www. oopslite. com/ software/ nepali_keyboard. html) developed

by OOPSLite Technologies• Sanskrit transliteration software (http:/ / baraha. com/ ) with font conversion to Latin and other Indian Languages

Documents• Sanskrit Documents (http:/ / sanskritdocuments. org/ home. html) — Documents in ITX format of Upanishads,

Stotras etc. and a metasite with links to translations, dictionaries, tutorials, tools and other Sanskrit resources.• Gretil: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages (http:/ / www. sub. uni-goettingen. de/

ebene_1/ fiindolo/ gretil. htm) — a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts inIndian languages.

• Gaudiya Grantha Mandira (http:/ / www. granthamandira. com/ index. php?show=home) — A Sanskrit TextRepository. This site also provides encoding converter.

• Sanskrit texts at Sacred Text Archive (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ hin/ index. htm)• Digital Library of India at Ernet.in (http:/ / www. new. dli. ernet. in/ ) and IIIT.in (http:/ / dli. iiit. ac. in/ ) —

scanned/OCRed copies of public-domain books

Primers• A Practical Sanskrit Introductory by Charles Wikner (http:/ / sanskritdocuments. org/ learning_tutorial_wikner/

index. html)• Sanskrit Self Study (http:/ / chitrapurmath. net/ sanskrit/ sanskrit. asp) by Chitrapur Math• An Analytical Cross Referenced Sanskrit Grammar (http:/ / warnemyr. com/ skrgram/ ) By Lennart Warnemyr

Article Sources and Contributors 22

Article Sources and ContributorsSanskrit  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579312455  Contributors: 100110100, 200.191.188.xxx, A. B., ARYAN818, Aaker, Aarem, Aatreya, Abduleep, Abecedare, Acctry,Adnat, Adoniscik, Aerol, Aeusoes1, AgarwalSumeet, Agg kapil, AgniKalpa, Ahoerstemeier, AjitPD, Akella, Aksera, Akshatvishal, Alexrexpvt, Algebraist, Allstarecho, Altenmann, Amarrg,Amarveda, Ambarish, Ambuj.Saxena, Amithchandhran, And we drown, Andre Engels, AndyKali, Angr, Animum, Anir1uph, Anoggen, Anonymi, Anonymous44, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard,Antonio "Tony" Montana "Scarface", Anupam, Aoidh, Apalaria, Apeloverage, Aravind Vlad, ArielGold, Arjun G. Menon, Arjun024, Arjuna, Art LaPella, Artaxiad, Arthena, Arun, Arvindn,AsceticRose, Ashwatham, Ashwin147, Athaenara, Atomaton, AvicAWB, Avicennasis, AxelBoldt, Azalea pomp, BD2412, BGOATDoughnut, BRG, Babub, Bakasuprman, Balloonguy, Balsterneb, Bandhar33, Baodo, Barticus88, Bazaan, Bazza1971, Bbi5291, Bcasterline, Bender235, Bentley4, Benwing, BernardM, Berria, Betacommand, Bharat Sawant, Bharatveer, Bheeshma, Bility,Bill william compton, Bilsonius, Binand, Bjankuloski06en, Bkell, Bogdangiusca, Bomac, Bonadea, Born Gay, Bovineone, Bradtcordeiro, Breno, Brianski, Brion VIBBER, Bsskchaitanya,Buddhipriya, Burschik, CALR, CDN99, CSWarren, CalicoCatLover, Calmargulis, Cameron Nedland, Casablanca2000in, Cassowary, CatherineMunro, Cbomo, CharlesMartel, Cheeni, Chekaz,Chinju, Chirags, Chmlpavani, Chowbok, Chris83, ChrisCork, ChrisHodgesUK, Circeus, Cityvalyu, Ckatz, Clementi, Cmdrjameson, Cminard, Cobaltcigs, Codebytez, Colonies Chris,Cometstyles, Consci, Conversion script, Coolgama, Coolian, Corvus13, Cosmican, Crculver, Cremepuff222, Ctande, Curb Chain, Cyhawk, Cyrius, DBaba, DaGizza, Dabomb87, Daeswar,Dan100, Danarmak, Danger, Daniel Newby, Dannown, Danog-76, Dante Alighieri, Dara, Darrendeng, Dave6, David Newton, David spector, DavidA, Daya.sharma, Dbachmann, Deeptrivia,Defrenrokorit, Dehara, Den fjättrade ankan, Denihilonihil, Deor, Der Golem, Desiphral, Devanampriya, Deville, Dewrad, Dewritech, Diderot, Discospinster, Djinn112, DocWatson42,Dontbeakakke, DopefishJustin, Doric Loon, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Dpv, Dreamingclouds, Drkpp, DuncanHill, Dv vignesh, Dwivedianay, Dysepsion, Dzubint, ENVI1, Edinborgarstefan,Editor3008, Ekabhishek, Elavarasutt, Electricmuffin11, Embryomystic, Emersoni, EmilJ, Emptymountains, Enchanter, Eranb, Erauch, ErikHaugen, Esszet, Esteban.barahona, Eu.stefan,EugeneZelenko, Eukesh, Evano1van, Everard Proudfoot, Everlong, Everyking, Factitious, Fconaway, FeanorStar7, FlyHigh, Foreverknowledge, Francs2000, Fratrep, Fred Bradstadt, Freetoreach,Furrykef, Future Perfect at Sunrise, GRRE, GSMR, Gabbe, Gaborgulya, Gaia2767spm, Gaius Cornelius, Gandalf1491, Garzo, GatesPlusPlus, Geneb1955, Ghayyour, Gheuf, Gidonb, Giftlite,Giggy, Gilo1969, Gimmetrow, GirishAdiga, Glenn, Gmalivuk, Goethean, Gogo Dodo, Gokulmadhavan, Gonzalo Diethelm, GoonerDP, GraemeL, Graft, Graham87, Grammatical error,Gregfitzy, Grover cleveland, Guliolopez, Gurmituppal, Gustavo José Meano Brito, Guy Peters, Gyan, Gzhanstong, HJJHolm, Hadal, Handyunits, Hanners.pang, Hannes Hirzel, HansM,Haofangjia, HappyColor, Hardouin, Havereric1, Hemant wikikosh, Hendrick 99, HenryLi, Hertz1888, Hintha, Hippietrail, Hmains, Hongooi, Hpfan1, Hrihr, Hsxeric, Hvn0413, Hypotaxis, I cthefunny side, IAF, ICouldBeWrong, IPSOS, Ian Pitchford, Icairns, IceKarma, Ihcoyc, Ijustam, Iketsi, Ikiroid, Imperial78, Inbetweener, InfocenterM, Infrogmation, Ingle.atul, Interlingua,Iridescent, IronChris, IslandGyrl, Ism schism, Itai, Italo, Ivan Štambuk, JNF Tveit, JackofOz, Jacquerie27, Jagged 85, Jago05, Jarkeld, Java, JavierMC, Jayarathina, Jayjrn, Jazzmand,Jeff.lopezstuit, Jeppiz, JeremyA, JerryFriedman, Jesse Viviano, JesseRafe, Jim62sch, Jo3sampl, JoanneB, Jobrill, Johanna-Hypatia, John Cline, John K, John Riemann Soong, John Vandenberg,John254, JohnBluePlus, Johnthebuddhist, Jon Harald Søby, Jonkerz, Jookti, Jordansmith, JorisvS, Joseph Biddulph, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joyous!, Jujhar.pannu, KLL Joe, KNM, Ka FaraqGatri, Kalarimaster, Kanatonian, Kapil kalpana, Karmosin, Kartheeque, Kashmiri, Kaveri, Kedar.mhaswade, Keep88, Kess, Ketanof92, Keyur1277, Khalid Mahmood, Khamgatam, Khestwol,Kipala, Kipholbeck, Kizor, Klimov, Koavf, Kotakkasut, Kricxjo, Krishnacgh, Krsont, Kseon, Ksnow, Kukkurovaca, Kunjethy, Kuru, Kwamikagami, Kwertii, Laca, Lafuerzasindical, Lalita wiki,Landroo, LarsJanZeeuwRules, Larsinio, Latics, Laysforme, Le Anh-Huy, Lee J Haywood, Leegee23, Leewonbum, Leszek Jańczuk, Lfdder, LiDaobing, Lighthead, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Littleguru, Liyster, Logos112, Longroof, Looxix, LordGulliverofGalben, LordSimonofShropshire, LordSuryaofShropshire, Lotje, Lotlil, Lupo, Lynchical, Lzygenius, M0rphzone, MK8, MKar,Mabdul, Madden, Maestro.gandhi, Magicalsaumy, Magioladitis, Magister Mathematicae, Mahaabaala, Mahmudmasri, Makerowner, Malaiya, Malhonen, Mandalar, Mandarax, Manojmp,Manumanas, Marco polo, Margin1522, Mark Arsten, Marnen, Martarius, Martin.Budden, MartinHarper, Mauls, Maurice Carbonaro, Mav, Maximus Rex, Maxis ftw, Mboverload, Mcorazao,Mdmday, MelkorDCLXVI, Menchi, Mereien, Merovingian, Meursault2004, Mf1004, Mgiganteus1, Mhss, Michael Hardy, MichaelTinkler, Mikezhao, Mindmatrix, MintCond, Miskwito,Mitsube, Mitsuhirato, Mogism, Molitorppd22, Moonriddengirl, MovingTree, Mowgli, Mr. Wheely Guy, Mrgah, Mugunth Kumar, Mujahideen194, Mukerjee, Munci, Muski27, Muzilon, Mxn,My name is archie, Mzajac, Naddy, Nadirali, Nagarjuna198, Nandloka, Nanshu, Nat Krause, NathRao, NatureA16, NatusRoma, Naveen Sankar, NayakDeepti, Nayansatya, Nd12345, NguyenThanh Quang, Nijgoykar, NinjaCharlie, Ninly, Nitincse, Nix.kappler, Nixeagle, Nk, Nmpenguin, Norm mit, Nownownow, Ntsimp, NuclearWarfare, Nuggehalli, Ocaasi, OccultZone,Ohconfucius, OldakQuill, Oliver Pereira, Oneiros, Orpheus, Oska, Owlmonkey, Paddu, Pankajjain, Parvati, Patelurology2, Paul A, Pauli133, Pdpiam, Peter Greenwell, Peter Grey, Peter Isotalo,Pgan002, Philip Cross, Philip Howard, PierreAbbat, Pinnerup, Pit, Pizza Puzzle, Plugwash, Pmanderson, Pne, Polar, Poslfit, Prabeshhimalaya, Praetonia, PrimroseGuy, Psychless, Qrfqr,QuartierLatin1968, Quiensabe, Quinyu, Qwertyshan, R'n'B, R.mahoney, RDF, Raamah, Raayen, Raguks, Raj Singh, Raj2004, Rajasekaran Deepak, Rajsamb, Rakeshshrestha, RandomCritic,RandomP, RandomXYZb, Ranjankar, Ranjitkct, Ranveig, Rao.anirudh, RaviC, Readanything1729, RedWolf, Redtigerxyz, Redwrathe, Rehevkor, Retired username, Riana, Rich Farmbrough,RichardKleiner, Rintrah, Riteshlamsal, Rivertorch, Rjwilmsi, Rms1, Roberts7, Robth, Rockthemind, Rogerb67, Rokus01, Ronebofh, Ross Burgess, Ruakh, Rudjek, Rursus, RyanCross, Rājagṛha,S3000, SJP, Saforrest, Sakonal, Salt Yeung, Sam Medany, Samaleks, Sandeep slash, Sangramh, Sanscrit1234, Sarayuparin, Sardanaphalus, Sarvagnya, Sassisch, Satchid, Savantas83, Sburke,Schmloof, Scottaleger, Sdoles, Sdornan, SeanMack, Semper15, ShakingSpirit, Shantavira, Sharnak, Shashikgp, Shijualex, Shinju, ShobaRaghu, Shrao, Shree, Shreevatsa, Shyam, Sindhutvavadin,Sinhaempire, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Sji2671, Skant, Skinsmoke, Skrodl, Smaines, Smelialichu, Soham321, Soman, Sophitus, Sotakeit, Sp0076, SpacemanSpiff, Sparkplay, Spiritindia,Sponberg, Sprasann, Spurius Furius Fusus, Squids and Chips, Srikym, Srini81, Srkris, Stan Shebs, Starnestommy, StasMalyga, Ste1n, Stefano Vincenzi, Steinbach, Stemonitis, Stephencarr,Steven J. Anderson, Steverapaport, Stevey7788, Stewartadcock, StradivariusTV, StrawberryCraze, Sudarshanhs, Sudharsansn, Sudo-swiki, Sukh, SumanaKoundinya, SunDragon34, Sundar,Sunilsrivastava, Supaiku, Superdosh, Suyog 11, Svartkell, Symane, TShilo12, TVSujal, Tarakananda, Taw, Tentoila, Thakurji, Thaurisil, TheBilly, ThePedanticPrick, TheRingess,Thegreyanomaly, Themunozgroup, Theodore Kloba, Therefore, Thingg, Thirusivaperur, Thisthat2011, Thunderboltz, Thuraiyur, Tigershrike, Tillwe, Titodutta, Tobias Conradi, Toussaint,Tpbradbury, Trelawnie, Tripping Nambiar, Triwbe, Tuncrypt, Udibi, Ugncreative Usergname, Ugog Nizdast, Uma ranjan, UnLoCode, Unre4L, UrsusArctosL71, User06201, Utcursch,Utkarshsingh.1992, VKokielov, Vagyoga, Vaniba12, Varanwal, Varlaam, Vastu, Vedant, Venu62, Verbum Veritas, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vidium, Vidyasankar, Vijayl, Vijñaptimātra, Vinay misr,Vinay.iyer1, VirtualSteve, Viscious81, VishalB, Vishvas vasuki, Vitesh 89, Vivin, Wachowich, Wahabijaz, Wavelength, Waygugin, Wereon, Wetwarexpert, Wiki Raja, Wiki Wikardo,Wiki.Tango.Foxtrot, Wikiacc, Wikidas, Wikiklrsc, WikipedianProlific, Wikipeditor, Wikivedalankara, Will Beback Auto, Winhunter, Wmahan, Wonder al, Woohookitty, Wowbobwow12,Writtenright, WrobjexWiki, XJaM, Xdenizen, Xufanc, Yakudza, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yann, Yashowardhani, YellowMonkey, Yes.aravind, Yogesh Khandke, Yossarian, Youre dreaming eh?,Zappaz, Zarboki, Zarek, Zeno Gantner, Zerida, Zerokitsune, Zh67781530, Zoicon5, Zoomzoom316, Zundark, ZyXoas, Zzuuzz, ÄDA - DÄP, Åm, Ég er Almar, Јованвб, ぎ ゅ う ひ, 939anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:The word संस्कृतम् (Sanskrit) in Sanskrit.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_word_संस्कृतम्_(Sanskrit)_in_Sanskrit.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:OldakQuillFile:Flag of India.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie, MifterFile:Rigveda MS2097.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rigveda_MS2097.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, BernardM, David.Monniaux,Imz, RanveigFile:Devimahatmya Sanskrit MS Nepal 11c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Devimahatmya_Sanskrit_MS_Nepal_11c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Abhishekjoshi, Ecelan, KTo288, Olaf Studt, Till.niermannFile:Vallana - Haagweg 14, Leiden.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vallana_-_Haagweg_14,_Leiden.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: TubantiaFile:Kashmir Sharada MS.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kashmir_Sharada_MS.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Dbachmann aten.wikipediaImage:My name is 'incomplete third word is the name' (written) in Sanskrit.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:My_name_is_'incomplete_third_word_is_the_name'_(written)_in_Sanskrit.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Yes.aravindFile:Phrase sanskrit.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phrase_sanskrit.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Adnat, User:Alteaven

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/