buddhas and bodhisattva1

8/12/2019 Buddhas and Bodhisattva1

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BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS: CELESTIALBUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS

The term bodhisattva occurs frequently in early Buddhist literature,usually referring to S´ a¯kyamuni Buddha prior to thetime of his enlightenment, which he achieved as he sat underBUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S& '()(ST$!) BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S 1075("'*')#+(D$! # -()$.$#", S('#"D (D$T$#"

the famous /odhi tree 0Skt1, bodhivr& ks&a, 2tree of enlightenment34a few miles south of .aya¯ in modern Bihar1 Bodhisattvameans literally 2enlightenment /eing,3 or, accordingto a theory that bodhisattva is a slightly mistaken Sanskritspelling of the early dialectical form bodhisatta 0as preservedin +ali4, it could have originally meant 2intent upon enlightenment135hatever the literal meaning 0and most scholarswould favor the first one4, a bodhisattva is a living /eing, usuallyhuman /ut not necessarily so, who has set out on thelong path toward Buddhahood, which in accordance withthe general Buddhist acceptance of the $ndian theories concerning

continual re/irth 0or transmigration4 was calculatedto lead the aspirant through a very long series of differentlives1)arge collections of such legendary life stories (ja¯taka)were made in the early Buddhist period, illustrating the heroicself6sacrifice of the future Buddha S´ a¯kyamuni in his progresstoward his last life 0also told in legendary style4, whenhis purpose was finally revealed to the world1 !s S´a¯kyamuniwas never regarded as the one and only Buddha, /ut ratheras one in a whole series 0seven are named in early te7ts, /utthe num/er is gradually much e7tended4, each of whom appearsin a separate world age, it was inevita/le that his followersshould come to e7pect a future Buddha for the ne7t world

age1 Thus, a new bodhisattva, 8aitreya 02loving kindness34,appears as the first of the many other 2great /eings,3 wholater e7tend the Buddhist pantheon to infinity1 The cult of 8aitreya is certainly attested among the followers of the earlyBuddhist sects, later referred to disparagingly as ¯9naya¯nists,and his appearance seems to mark the /eginning of the considera/ledevotion that came to /e directed toward these celestial/eings1$t should /e /orne in mind that the distinctions /etweenthe so6called 8aha¯ya¯nists and ¯9naya¯nists were notso clear6cut in the early centuries '( as they appear to /elater1 The same mythological concepts concerning the nature

of a Buddha and a bodhisattva 0a future Buddha4 remain fundamentalto Buddhism in all its forms, and it can easily /eshown that all the later e7travagant developments of the8aha¯ya¯na are tracea/le to tendencies inherent in the earliestknown forms of Buddhism1 The 8aha¯ya¯nists differed intheir philosophical assumptions and the manner in whichthey applied the bodhisattva theory to normal religious life1or them, the bodhisattva career was the only genuine pathtoward enlightenment, which they distinguished from thegoal of nirva¯n& a, interpreted /y them as the limited selfish aspirationof the early disciples1 !t the same time they followedthe same forms of monastic discipline 0%inaya4 as their¯9naya¯na /rethren, often living together in the same monasticcompound until doctrinal disputes led them to set up separatecommunities of their own1 Thus freed, the 8aha¯ya¯nists/egan to go their own way, /ut there would appear to have



/een no very noticea/le iconographic changes in theirmonasteries until several centuries later1 The well6known caves of !:anta¯ were pro/a/ly occupied/y Buddhist communities up to the eighth century '(, andthere is scarcely any image or painting there that might displeasea determined adherent of the older sects1 The only celestial

bodhisattva apart from 8aitreya to /e painted at!:anta¯ is !valokite´svara 02the lord who looks down in compassion34,and he may /e quite convincingly interpreted asthe future Buddha Sá¯kyamuni, who looked down in compassionfrom the heaven called Tus& ita 02:oyful34 /efore finallyagreeing to /e /orn in our world for the /enefit of its inha/itants1"one of the many Buddha and bodhisattva images survivingat !:anta¯ in carved stone can /e identified as particularcelestial Buddhas and bodhisattvas1 "umerous bodhisattvasare named in 8aha¯ya¯na su¯tras from the first century '( onward,/ut a rather more limited num/er achieved generallyaccepted iconographic forms, namely those who were especiallypopular as distinct /eings and those who were fitted

into man&d&alas and related iconographic patterns1 The earliest iconographic pattern, which resulted in theeventual appearance of three leading bodhisattvas, is pro/a/lythe triad of images representing Sá¯kyamuni Buddha flanked/y two attendants1 !ccording to early accounts, Sá¯kyamuniwas attended /y $ndian divinities at his /irth1 #riginally,these two attendants may have /een thought of as Brahma¯and $ndra, /ut they came to /e accepted as Buddhist divinities/y the simple method of giving them new Buddhistnames1 They thus /ecome identified as +admapa¯n& i 02lotusholder34and %a:rapa¯n& i 02vajra-holder341 +admapa¯n& i comes

to /e identified with !valokite´svara, who also holds a lotusflower, and thus /ecomes a great bodhisattva in his own right1%a:rapa¯n& i;s rise to fame is very much slower, since throughthe earlier 8aha¯ya¯na period he continues to /e regarded asSá¯kyamuni;s personal attendant, his function and dutiesmerely /eing e7tended to protect all other bodhisattvas1$t is not until we reach the early Tantric period as represented/y the Mañju´sr¯ımu¯lakalpa that %a:rapa¯n& i appears asa powerful bodhisattva in his own right, /ut still as a mem/erof a triad1 By this time 0perhaps the fifth to the si7th century'(4 many non6Buddhist divinities were /eing spontaneously

accepted into the Buddhist fold< they were /eing acceptedfor the straightforward reason that those who /ecame supportersof the monks or who even /ecame Buddhist monksthemselves did not need to renounce their devotion to otherdivinities, whose e7istence and capa/ilities were never deniedeither /y Sá¯kyamuni himself or /y his followers1 )ocal divinitiesdecorate Buddhist stupas 0Skt1, stu¯pas4 from at least thesecond century B'( onward, and as already noted, the greatindu divinities were soon incorporated as Buddhist 2converts13 This process continued throughout the whole historyof $ndian Buddhism and goes far to e7plain the e7istence of so many celestial /eings in the ever more ela/orate Buddhistpantheon1$n the Mañju´sr¯ımu¯lakalpa these divinities are groupedinto various 2families,3 of which the three chief ones arethose of the Buddha or Tatha¯gata, the )otus, and the %a:ra1



Divinities who were already accepted as fully Buddhist wereplaced in the Buddha;s family, while gentle divinities due for1076 BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S& '()(ST$!) BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S("'*')#+(D$! # -()$.$#", S('#"D (D$T$#"conversion were placed in the )otus family under the leadershipof !valokite´svara< fierce divinities, whose conversionwas supposed to /e trou/lesome, were placed under the command

of %a:rapa¯n& i, who was a/le to su/due them with hispowerful vajra 02thunder/olt341 Since it was suita/le that theoriginal Buddha family should /e headed /y a bodhisattva :ust like the other two, this position was assigned to8a=:u´sr¯9 02gentle and glorious one,3 also known as8a=:ughos& a, 2gentle voice34, who appears in early 8aha¯ya¯nasu¯tras as Sá¯kyamuni;s chief spokesman1 is origin is o/scure/ut it is significant that he is later linked with Sarasvat¯9, theindu goddess of speech, taking her mantra 02#m& va¯g¯9´svarimum& 34 as his own1 $t must /e emphasi>ed that none of thesegreat bodhisattvas has a 2history3 in the modern sense& theyare all mythological creations1

CELESTIAL BUDDHAS. 5hile the cult of a celestial bodhisattvaas a .reat Being of heavenly associations clearly has itsroots in the early cult of Sá¯kyamuni, who was appealed toas /oth Buddha and bodhisattva, its full implications were developedfrom appro7imately the first century '( onward /ythose who /egan to adopt specific 8aha¯ya¯na teachings1Sá¯kyamuni was traditionally acclaimed as the one and onlyBuddha of our present world age, and early legends tell howhe made the vow, when he was a brahman /oy named 8eghaor Sumegha, /efore a previous Buddha, D¯9pam& kara, to followthe self6sacrificing bodhisattva path toward Buddhahood1

$t must /e emphasi>ed that the later concepts never had theeffect of negating the earlier ones, and despite the change of viewpoint that $ am a/out to e7plain, the cult of Buddhasof the past, as well as of the future, was never a/andoned1 The 2Buddhas of the three times3 0past, present, and future4are frequently mentioned in 8aha¯ya¯na literature and theircult has continued in Ti/etan Buddhism to this day1 The change that takes place in 8aha¯ya¯na theories resultsfrom their perhaps more realistic view of the nature of the cosmos1 The early Buddhists viewed the world as a closedsystem, comprising four main island6continents arrangedaround a central sacred mountain, known as 8eru, identifiedwith 8ount ?ailash in western Ti/et1 8aha¯ya¯na teachings,

on the other hand, were greatly affected /y views thatenvisaged the universe as whole gala7ies of world systems, e7tendingendlessly throughout all the directions of space1 $tfollowed logically from this that there should also /e Buddhasoperative in all these other world systems1 #ne of theearliest disputes that arose /etween 8aha¯ya¯nists and thosewho held to the earlier views concerns precisely the pro/lemof whether there can /e more than one Buddha at a time,and it is clear that they argue against different cosmological/ackgrounds1 8aha¯ya¯na ideas on the nature of such myriadsof world systems may /e learned from the reading of any of the 8aha¯ya¯na su¯tras, where Buddhas, surrounded /y bodhisattvas,

continue to preach simultaneously in their various2/uddha fields3 (buddhaks&etra)1"ot all such worlds are fortunate enough to have a Buddha



at any particular time1 Those that do are divided generallyinto two classes, known as 2pure3 or 2impure13 The purefields contain only those /eings who are on the way to Buddhahood,that is, bodhisattvas, while the impure fields contain/eings of all kinds at all stages of spiritual advance anddecline1 The manner in which bodhisattvas may travel miraculouslyfrom one /uddha field to another is well illustratedin the important 8aha¯ya¯na su¯tra, the Vimalak¯ırtinirde´sa0The teaching of %imalak¯9rti4, where the question is understanda/lyraised as to why Sá¯kyamuni should have electedto /e /orn in an impure field rather than a pure one1 issuperiority is acknowledged /y visiting bodhisattvas from apure field, who e7claim& 2The greatness of Sá¯kyamuni is esta/lished<it is wonderful how he converts the lowly, thewretched and the unruly1 8oreover, the Bodhisattvas whoare esta/lished in this mean Buddha6sphere 0i1e1, our world4must have inconceiva/le compassion3 0)amotte, @AC,pp1 EFG@H41S´

a¯kyamuni;s essential identity with all other Buddhas isoften asserted, sometimes su/tly, sometimes quite e7plicitly,as in chapter @I of the Saddharmapun&d&ar¯ıka Su¯tra (otus o!

the "rue a# S$ripture)% $n another su¯tra, theS´

u¯ram& &amasama¯dhi 0)amotte, @ACI, pp1 CGE4, the bodhisattvaDr&d&imati asks Sá¯kyamuni how long his life will last1Sá¯kyamuni tells him to go and ask another /uddha named%airocana 02resplendent one34, who presides over a worldsystem named 5ell !dorned, which is to /e reached in theeastern direction /y crossing over thirty6two thousand /uddhafields1 aving traveled there he is told /y that Buddha&28y length of life is e7actly the same as that of the BuddhaSá¯kyamuni, and if you really want to know, the length of mylife will /e seven hundred incalcula/le world ages13 -eturningto Sá¯kyamuni, the inquiring bodhisattva says& 2$n so faras $ understand the words of the )ord, $ would say that itis you, # )ord, who are in the world6system named 5ell!dorned, where with another name you work for the happinessof all living /eings13

So many different kinds of Buddha manifestations aretaken for granted in the 8aha¯ya¯na su¯tras that scholarly effortshave /een made to reduce them to some order1 The /estaccount of such attempts will /e found in )ouis de la %allJe+oussin;s translation of the 'hen& #eishi lun, Kuan>ang;scompilation of ten ma:or commentaries to %asu/andhu;s"rim& ´sika¯ 0)a %allJe +oussin, @AA, vol1 , p1 C41 The simplest scheme, which gradually gained generalacceptance, envisages an 2!/solute Buddha Body3 0thedharmaka¯a of early Buddhist tradition4 manifesting itself asvarious 2glorious /odies3 0sam& bho&aka¯a, 2/ody of en:oyment34to high6ranking bodhisattvas in celestial spheres, and

as various 2human /odies3 0nirma¯n& aka¯a, 2manifested/ody34, which need not necessarily /e human /ut are usuallyconceived as such, in impure Buddha fields like our own



world1 )ater Tantric tradition suggests the e7istence of afourth, supreme /ody, known as sva¯bha¯vikaka¯a 02selfe7istent34,/ut earlier this is used as an alternative name forthe !/solute Body (dharmaka¯a)% 5e shall note later the ten6BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S& '()(ST$!) BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S 1077("'*')#+(D$! # -()$.$#", S('#"D (D$T$#"dency to arrive at ever6more6transcendent states of /uddhahood,when a si7th, supreme /uddha is placed a/ove the setof five cosmic /uddhas1 To these we must now give attentionas the production of later 8aha¯ya¯na speculation and as thefoundation of the whole class of tantras known as *oga Tantras1 Lust as /uddha manifestations, conceived in a diachronictime sequence in accordance with the earlier conceptionsof /uddhahood, came to /e represented /y a triad of Buddhas,referred to as the Buddhas of the Three Times, namelyD¯9pam& kara, S´a¯kyamuni, and 8aitreya 0in this later conte7the is referred to as Buddha and no longer as bodhisattva4, sothose other /uddha manifestations, conceived synchronically

as e7isting simultaneously in all directions throughout spacein accordance with later 8aha¯ya¯na conceptions of the universe,came to /e sym/oli>ed /y the ive Buddhas of the cosmos,representing the center and the four cardinal points1 These have /een popularly referred to as dha¯ni-buddhas02meditational /uddhas34, a term that Brian odgson0@HEEG@HAF4 seems to have heard used locally in "epal /utthat appears to have no traditionally esta/lished :ustification1$n the few su¯tras and the many tantras and their commentariesin which they are referred to, they are known simplyas the ive Buddhas (pañ$abuddha) or the ive Tatha¯gatas(pañ$atatha¯&ata) with no other ascription1 $f such is required,

then the term 'osmi$ Buddhas seems appropriate, in thattheir primary function is to represent /uddhahood in its cosmicdimension, as sym/oli>ed in the fivefold man&d&ala%!s may /e e7pected, this set of five /uddhas evolvedgradually, and we find at first various sets of names, someof which /ecome gradually sta/ili>ed1 Two fairly constantones from the start are !mita¯/ha 02/oundless light34 or!mita¯yus 02/oundless life34 as the Buddha of the 5est, and!ks& o/hya 02the impertur/a/le34 as the Buddha of the (ast1$t has /een suggested with great plausi/ility that the Buddhaof the 5est was first accepted as an o/:ect of devotion /y

the Buddhists of the far northwest of the $ndian su/continentas a result of +ersian cultural and religious influence,since light and life are essential characteristics of the chief Moroastriandivinity, !hura 8a>da¯1 This hypothesis is /orneout /y the very special devotion shown to this particularBuddha in 'entral !sia and especially in 'hina and Lapan,where a particular constellation of sects 0known genericallyas +ure )and4 is devoted to his cult1 There is no indicationthat any such special cult developed elsewhere in $ndia,where !mita¯/haN!mita¯yus remains simply one of the iveBuddhas1 Ludging /y the very large num/er of images found,the most popular /uddha, certainly in northeastern $ndia,where Buddhism survived until the early thirteenth century,

is !ks& o/hya, the Buddha of the (ast1 $conographically he isidentified with S´a¯kyamuni Buddha, who was challenged atthe time of his enlightenment /y 8a¯ra, the (vil #ne 0the



Satan of Buddhism4, to :ustify his claim to /uddhahood1Sá¯kyamuni called the earth goddess to witness his claim /ytapping the ground with the fingers of his right hand, andshe duly appeared to give testimony, to the total discomfitureof 8a¯ra1 ! /uddha image formed in this style /ecame thetypical image of Bodh .aya¯ 0south of .aya¯4 in eastern $ndia,

where Sá¯kyamuni showed himself impertur/a/le (aks&obha)despite the assaults of the (vil #ne1 The geographical choice of this particular /uddha0!ks& o/hya4 as the Buddha of the (ast in the later formulationof the set of five is not difficult to understand, /eing theo/vious one /ecause of his popularity in the eastern region1 The central /uddha came to /e identified with the /uddhaimage, which must have /een typical of another famous placeof pilgrimage, the Deer +ark 0now known as Sa¯rna¯th, a fewmiles from %a¯ran& a¯s¯94, where Sá¯kyamuni was /elieved to havepreached his first sermon1 The gesture of preaching is sym/oli>ed/y the two hands linked in front of the chest in order

to suggest a turning wheel, the 2wheel of the doctrine,3which Sá¯kyamuni is said to have turned, :ust as the chariotwheels of a universal monarch 0$akravartin, 2wheel6turner34turn throughout the world1! /uddha;s supremacy in the religious sphere was equatedin very early Buddhist tradition with the supremacy of thequasi6historical /ut mainly mythological concept of a 2universalmonarch,3 with the result that a bodhisattva is generallyideali>ed as a kind of crown prince< thus it is in princelygarments that he is generally portrayed1 $n particular,8a=:u´sr¯9, Sá¯kyamuni;s spokesman in early 8aha¯ya¯nasu¯tras, is referred to specifically as the prince (kuma¯rabhu¯ta)%$t is not surprising that as central Buddha of the set of five,the preaching Sá¯kyamuni comes to /e referred to as %airocana02resplendent one34, the very /uddha of vast age withwhom he claims identity in the Sú¯ram& &amasama¯dhi Su¯tra% The full name of that particular /uddha is in fact%airocana6ra´smipratiman&d&ita6vikurvanara¯:a 02resplendentone, adorned with light6rays, transformation6king341 The remainingtwo /uddhas, placed to the south and to the north,/ecome generally sta/ili>ed in this configuration as -atnasam/hava02:ewel6/orn34, presuma/ly sym/oli>ingSá¯kyamuni;s /oundless generosity, and !moghasiddhi

02infalli/le success34, sym/oli>ing his miraculous powers1Summari>ing these various kinds of Buddha manifestations,one may make the following o/servations&@1 The state of Buddhahood is essentially one and only, or,to use a safer term, nondual, and nonmanifest in anyway whatsoever& such is the !/solute Body of Buddhahood11 The various stages at which this !/solute Body may assumeapparently manifested form have /een e7plainedas various grades of /uddha /odies, of which the .loriousBody, or Body of (n:oyment, and the umanBody, or 8anifested Body, are the other two terms inmore general use1O1 !ccording to the earliest Buddhist /eliefs, /uddhas

manifest themselves in a kind of historical sequence,each one presiding over a different world age1F1 !ccording to the later 8aha¯ya¯na theories, Buddhas are



1078 BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S& '()(ST$!) BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S("'*')#+(D$! # -()$.$#", S('#"D (D$T$#"manifest all the time in all the directions of space, presidingover their individual /uddha fields1 These various concepts, which may appear to an outsider asin some measure conflicting, are retained /y those who wereresponsi/le for the later formulations, while in general the

2historical3 /uddha S´a¯kyamuni continues to hold the centerof the stage1BODHISATTVAS AND GODDESSES. )arge num/ers of bodhisattvasare mentioned in the 8aha¯ya¯na su¯tras as residing invarious Buddha fields, /ut very few of these come to receivea special cult as great individuals1 The three primary ones,8a=:u´sr¯9, !valokite´svara, and %a:rapa¯n& i, have already /eenmentioned1 These are later identified as the 2spiritual sons3of the three primary Buddhas, S´ a¯kyamuni 0alias %airocana4,!mita¯/ha, and !ks& o/hya1 The concept of ive Buddhascauses the num/er of /uddha 2families,3 previously three, to/e e7tended to five, and thus two more leading bodhisattvas

are required to complete the set1 They are known as-atnapa¯n& i 02:ewel6holder34 for the Lewel family of -atnasam/hava,and as %i´svapa¯n& i 02universal holder34 for theSword or !ction family of !moghasiddhi1 Both these arelatecomers and their artificial nature is suggested /y theirnames1$n the early 8aha¯ya¯na su¯tras we find various bodhisattvasnamed, such as the student Sada¯prarudita 02always weeping34,whose story is told in the +erfection of 5isdom literature,or Dr&d&hamati 02firm6minded34, who is the mainspokesman in the S´ u¯ram& &ama Su¯tra, or again the bodhisattvaDharma¯kara 02e7pression of the dharma34, who sets the conditionsfor his own /uddha field through a long series of vows, the fulfillment of which is a precondition for his /ecomingthe /uddha !mita¯/ha1 "one of these achieves individualfame e7cept for the last as the /uddha !mita¯/ha, of whom he is little more than a formative shadow, like the

brahman /oy 8egha who eventually /ecame the /uddhaS´a¯kyamuni1 %imalak¯9rti, already mentioned a/ove, gains apopular following in 'entral !sia and in 'hina1 #f othersso far not mentioned there is the one6time bodhisattva

Bhais& a:yara:a 02king of medicine34, named in "he otus o! the

"rue a# 0see ?ern, @ACO, pp1 OHff14, whom we find soonelevated to the rank of /uddha with the name of Bhais& a:yara:a1 $n certain sets of divinities, the bodhisattva!¯ka¯´sagar/ha 02wom/ of space34 replaces -atnapa¯n& i as chief of the Lewel family< neither of these leading bodhisattvas appearsto attract any special cult1 +aralleling !¯ ka¯´sagar/ha, atleast in name, is the bodhisattva ?s& itigar/ha 02wom/ of theearth341 +erhaps /y the mere chance form of his name,?s& itigar/ha achieved enormous success in 'entral !sia and'hina as the one who controls the welfare of the dead1 Byfar the most popular of all the 2great gods3 of Buddhism is!valokite´svara, who also assumes the name of )oke´svara

02lord of the world34, normally S´ iva;s title in indu tradition1$t is possi/le that his name was a deli/erate parody of S´



iva;s title, with the sylla/les changed sufficiently to give thenew meaning of 2lord who looks down 0in compassion413 $tremains dou/tful if any image of him can /e identified specifically/efore the si7th century, unless we include the lotusholding0+admapa¯n& i4 attendant /y S´a¯kyamuni;s side, alreadyreferred to a/ove1 owever, /y the si7th century his cult iswell esta/lished, as attested /y an entire su¯tra, the

a¯ran&d&avu¯ha, compiled in his honor1 $t is here that thewell6known mantra 2#m& man& ipadme hu¯m& 3 02# thou withthe :eweled lotus34 can /e firmly identified for the first time1 This mantra, like the one of 8a=:u´sr¯9, is in the form of afeminine vocative for reasons that should /ecome immediatelyclear1eminine divinities first appear within the Buddhistpantheon as handmaidens of the great bodhisattvas, whomthey accompany in much the same way that $ndian princeswere usually depicted with a small circle of lady companions1 Thus we may note that in the Mañju´sr¯ımu¯lakalpa 08acdonald,@AC, pp1 @Eff14 !valokite´svara is surrounded /y+a¯n&d&arava¯sin¯9 02white6clad34, Ta¯ra¯ 02savioress34, Bhrukut& i02frowning34, +ra:=a¯pa¯ramita¯ 02perfection of wisdom34, Tatha¯gata6locana¯ 02Buddha6eye34, and Us&n&a¯s& ara¯:a¯ 02lady of the wisdom6/ump341 5e shall meet with some of these againwithin the scheme of the fivefold man&d&ala, /ut already twoand possi/ly three look forward to devotional cults of theirown, since they /ecome the great goddesses of Buddhism1 The goddess +ra:=a¯pa¯ramita¯ represents the fundamental wisdomof 8aha¯ya¯na philosophy, as a divine concept corresponding

in many respects to Sancta Sophia of 'hristian tradition1(ven more popular is Ta¯ra¯, whose flourishing wasassured /y the salvific assurance conveyed /y her name1 Shewas soon recogni>ed as the feminine counterpart 0not a partnerin the Tantric sense4 of !valokite´svara1 Ta¯ra¯ is his femininee7pression, :ust as Sarasvat¯9 /ecomes the feminine e7pressionof 8a=:u´sr¯91 Thus we may note that since themantra of a great divinity is also his e7pression 0his vida¯ orspecial knowledge, as it is often called4, his mantra too assumesa feminine form1 Ta¯ra¯ /ecame so important that manyother feminine divinities came to /e regarded as her variousforms1 Thus she appears as Bhrukut& i when she wishes to

show her displeasure, or in the triumphant form of Us&n&¯9´sasita¯tapatra¯ 02lady of the wisdom6/ump with the whiteparasol34 when she /ecomes manifest with a thousand armsand a thousand heads, arranged in paintings so as to appearas a high, ela/orate headdress, so that she is in no way grotesque1ere, she corresponds to the eleven6headed, thousand6armed form of !valokite´svara1 These more comple7 forms may clearly /e related tosu/sequent Tantric developments, where the central divinityof the man&d&ala may /e conceived of as comprising in his personall his various directional manifestations, from four toa thousand1 luctuation in se7 is not uncommon in the earlystages of ela/oration of this vast and comple7 pantheon< asis well known, in later 'hinese Buddhist tradition



!valokite´svara 0?uan6yin4 merges with Ta¯ra¯ so as to /ecomea feminine divinity1 -eturning to the Mañju´sr¯ımu¯lakalpa,we may note that :ust as !valokite´svara is surrounded /y /e6BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S& '()(ST$!) BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S 1079("'*')#+(D$! # -()$.$#", S('#"D (D$T$#"nign goddesses 0e7cept possi/ly for Bhrukut& i4, so %a:rapa¯n& iis surrounded /y fierce ones, named %a:ra¯n& ku´s¯9 02lady of thevajra hook34, %a:ra´sr&nPkhala¯ 02lady of the vajra fetter34,Su/a¯hu 02strong6armed one34, and %a:rasena¯ 02lady of thevajra army341 $t is sometimes difficult to draw a line /etween

bodhisattvas and great goddesses, /ut Ta¯ra¯ in her variousmanifestations is as great as the greatest of bodhisattvas1 Sheis saluted as the mother of all Buddhas, and in timeS´a¯kyamuni;s human mother was duly seen as one of hermanifestations1 The travelogue of the famous 'hinese pilgrim Kuan>ang,who visited monasteries throughout 'entral !sia andthe $ndian su/continent /etween CA and CFI, well illustrates

the e7tent of popular devotion accorded the images of certain great bodhisattva figures during the seventh century'(1 imself a scholarly 8aha¯ya¯na philosopher, Kuan>angwas nonetheless pleased to hear of the miraculous powers of such images, mentioning in particular those of 8aitreya,!valokite´svara, and occasionally 8a=:u´sr¯9 and the great goddess Ta¯ra¯< on many occasions he offered devout prayers tothem on his own account1 #ne may also mention that Kuan>angwas equally interested in the cult of arhats 02worthyones34, those early disciples of S´a¯kyamuni Buddha, who,having achieved nirva¯n& a, were often /elieved to continue insome kind of suspended e7istence in remote mountain

places1 8ore wonderful tales of arhats, tales certainly learnedfrom his 8aha¯ya¯nist /rethren in $ndia, are retold in his accountthan stories a/out bodhisattvas1 $n fact, the continuingcult of arhats 0'hin1, lo-han4, which spread through 'entral!sia to 'hina, survives in a set of si7teen or eighteen .reat!rhats well known to Ti/etan Buddhists1 These earlier traditionsprovide an interesting link, all too often ignored, /etween¯9naya¯nists and 8aha¯ya¯nists1 Thus, the Buddhistworld of the early centuries '( was peopled with a large varietyof celestial /eings, among whom certain favorite bodhisattvaswere only :ust /eginning to come to the fore1 Tantric Buddhism, at least in its higher aspirations, may

/e descri/ed as a system of practices, either of ritual yoga orof physical and mental yoga, /y means of which the practitioneridentifies himself with his tutelary divinity, who isidentified /oth with the practitioner;s own teacher and withthe goal of final enlightenment1 #ne of the main means towardsuch an o/:ective is the man&d&ala or mystic circle of divinitieswho sym/oli>e e7istence at all its various levels, theessential sameness of which the pupil must learn to e7periencethrough the guidance of his teacher (&uru)% Man&d&alasare descri/ed in earlier tantras, where a 2three6family3 arrangement

predominates, /ut it is not until the so6called *oga Tantras, with their fivefold arrangement of man&d&alas,



/egin to appear that the new sym/olism can /e worked outeffectively1$n the earlier Tantras there is a gradation of importancein the various families& the Buddha or Tatha¯gata family predominates<the )otus family with its gentle divinities comesne7t< the %a:ra family of %a:rapa¯n& i and his fierce childrencomes last1 owever, in the *oga Tantras %a:rapa¯n& i comes

right to the fore as the chief representative of S´a¯kyamuni,alias %airocana1 e is also called %a:radhara 02holder of thevajra34 and %a:rasattva 02vajra /eing34, names that at a laterstage of Tantric development refer e7clusively to a si7th, utterlysupreme Buddha1 The main tantra of the *oga Tantraclass is the Sarvatatha¯&atatattvasam& &raha and here the chief man&d&ala is known as the %a:radha¯tu man&d&ala, the 8an&d&alaof the !damantine Sphere, where bodhisattvas with %a:ranames, all essentially manifestations of %a:rapa¯n& i, form circlesaround the ive Buddhas and the four Buddha goddesses1!lthough man&d&ala means circle, the main divinities mayalso /e arranged around a central square within the main circle,since this square, which is usually provided with fourela/orate doorways, represents the sacred palace in which themain divinities dwell1"e7t in importance after the ive Buddhas are the fourBuddha goddesses, who occupy the su/sidiary directions of space, namely )ocana¯, 8a¯mak¯9 02my very own34,+a¯n&d&arava¯sin¯9, and Ta¯ra¯1 They are usually interpreted as

sym/oli>ing the four main elements 0earth, water, fire, andair4, while the fifth 0space4 coalesces with supreme Buddhahoodat the center1 $n later tantras a fifth, central Buddhagoddess is named %a:radhaa¯tv¯9´svar¯9 02lady of the adamantinesphere34, /ut she does not appear in man&d&alas of the *oga Tantra class normally, since these coupled male6femaledivinities 0known as ab-um, 2father6mother3 in Ti/etan4do not form part of their sym/olism1 !part from the si7teen.reat Bodhisattvas, all with %a:ra names, we may draw attentionto the eight lesser goddesses of the offerings, arrangedfarther out from the center in the intermediate directions,

and the four door guardians at the four main entrances1 Theeight goddesses of the offerings are mere sym/ols, as theirnames indicate at once&@1 %a:rala¯sya¯, or %a:ra rolic1 %a:radhu¯pa, or %a:ra $ncenseO1 %a:rama¯la¯, or %a:ra .arlandF1 %a:rapus&pa¯, or %a:ra lowerI1 %a:rag¯9ti, or %a:ra SongC1 %a:ra¯loka¯, or %a:ra )amp1 %a:ranr& tya¯, or %a:ra DanceH1 %a:ragandha¯, or %a:ra Scent The names of the four door guardians, /eginning with theeastern one, may /e interpreted as %a:ra ook, %a:ra "oose,%a:ra etter, and %a:ra Bell1 The possi/le variations within this fundamental patternare considera/le1 Thus, the si7teen bodhisattvas fall into four



groups of four, /eing allocated in these sets to the four directionalBuddhas1 The leaders of these four groups are directlyidentifia/le with the chief bodhisattvas, already mentioneda/ove, as well as with others who have not yet /een mentioned1Such names are generally interchangea/le within the1080 BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S& '()(ST$!) BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S("'*')#+(D$! # -()$.$#", S('#"D (D$T$#"

%a:ra family, which in the *oga Tantras is closely associatedwith the so6called family of !ll Buddhas1 !mong the namesnot met /efore in this article we draw attention especially toSamanta/hadra 02all good34, from whom %a:rapa¯n& i is saidto arise1 Since it is also used as a title of %airocana, the central/uddha, it is not surprising that it is used later as one of thenames of a si7th, supreme /uddha1#ther tantras of the *oga Tantra class, while generallyretaining all the Buddha goddesses, the si7teen bodhisattvas,and lesser divinities, introduce different names and iconographicforms for the ive Buddhas themselves1 !s devised/y Tantric masters in $ndia 0presuma/ly from the seventh

century onward4 from a wide choice of names, to which otherscould /e added as one pleased, the com/inations, at leastin theory, are infinite1 8a=:u´sr¯9 in a four6headed and eightarmedmanifestation may replace Sá¯kyamuni at the center,and a highly comple7 man&d&ala, which includes the eightUs&n&¯9s& a Buddhas as well as the four directional Buddhas togetherwith the si7teen .reat Bodhisattvas and a host of lesserdivinities, is known as Dharmadha¯tu 8an&d&ala, or the8an&d&ala of the Dharma Sphere, of which a fine e7amplesurvives in the eleventh6century monastery of Sumda inMangskar1HORRIFIC BUDDHAS. !s a result of Sáiva influence transmittedthrough Tantric yogins of northeast $ndia, celestial Buddhasof horrific appearance /ecome accepta/le tutelary divinitiesin 8aha¯ya¯na communities from perhaps the ninthcentury onward1 8ost of the tantras that descri/e these divinitiesprovide their own special man&d&alas, with eruka,eva:ra, Sám& vara, 'an&d&amaha¯ros&an& a, and other such horrificfigures clasping their equally horrific feminine partners as

they dance on corpses at the center of their circle of o&in¯ıs1Bodhisattvas are rare in such company1 #f the strange Buddhafigures :ust named, only 'an&d&amaha¯ros&an& a has male divinitiesin the four directions, who are all manifestations of !cala 02impertur/a/le34, a variant of !ks&o/hya;s name1'laiming superiority over all previous tantras, their propagatorsasserted the e7istence of a si7th, supreme Buddha, whosu/sumed the fivefold set, and with whom their particulartutelary divinity is identified1 e is usually given the nameof %a:rasattva 02vajra /eing34 or %a:radhara 02vajra6holder34,/oth of which are titles of %a:rapa¯n& i in the earlier *oga Tantras,as has already /een noted1Special mention should /e made of the *uhasama¯ja

02secret union34 "antra, for although this tantra was later



grouped together with the others :ust mentioned as a socalled!nuttarayoga Tantra 02 tantra of supreme yoga34, it adheresmuch more firmly to the fivefold scheme, and although!ks& o/hya is made central Buddha of the set of five, the si7th,supreme Buddha is known as .reat %airocana08aha¯vairocana41 "antras of the 2#ld School3 0-=inP6ma6pa4of Ti/etan Buddhism are to a large e7tent /ased on the fivefoldscheme of *oga Tantras with the addition of fierce divinitiesof the eruka type1 Their supreme Buddha, as in thecase of those heterodo7 Ti/etan Buddhists, the Bon6pos, isnamed Samanta/hadra, a title also earlier closely connectedwith %a:rapa¯n& i1FINAL SURVEY. 5hile we have pointed out that far too starka contrast is often drawn /etween 8aha¯ya¯na Buddhism of the early centuries '( with the already developed Buddhismaccepted /y their ¯9naya¯nist /rethren, there is no dou/t thatthe contrast must have /een very stark indeed during the lastfew centuries of Buddhist life in northern $ndia 0from thetenth to the twelfth century4, concentrated mainly in ?ashmir

in the far northwest and in Bihar, Bengal, and #rissa inthe east1 5hile the monasteries continued to practice thesame ancient monastic rules, one of which was adopted /ythe Ti/etans from the eighth century onward 0namely thatof the order known as 8u¯lasarva¯stiva¯da, particularly strongin 'entral !sia and northern $ndia4, the cult of Buddhas, bodhisattvas,greater and lesser goddesses, and various attendant/eings had developed in the manner descri/ed a/ove, introducingmany new iconographic forms into the temples andcovering the walls with murals of the kind that now only survivein the old temples of )adakh and western Ti/et 0tenthto thirteenth century41 !lthough no such murals survive in$ndia 0those of !:anta¯ up to the eighth century are the only

ones remaining4, the close relationship /etween the early Ti/etanpaintings and the original $ndian ones, now lost, isproved /y the many that still can /e seen in the form of miniaturepaintings on manuscripts of the +a¯la dynasty, whichruled in eastern $ndia during the last Buddhist period1 Thesehave survived in "epal and Ti/et, where they were su/sequentlycarried1$t would seem that it was not so much the 8aha¯ya¯nathat was responsi/le for the great divergence that develops/etween the cults of the 2early3 schools 0¯9naya¯na4 and laterBuddhism, despite the very important role that celestial bodhisattvasplay in 8aha¯ya¯na su¯tras1 !s noted already, very

few of these can /e identified iconographically /efore thesi7th or even the seventh century, namely 8aitreya,!valokite´svara, 8a=:u´sr¯9, the great goddess Ta¯ra¯, and finally%a:rapa¯n& i, who /egins to come to the fore only at the endof this 8aha¯ya¯na period1 %a:rapa¯n& i has the /est6documented2career3 of all Buddhist divinities and it is he 0or rather hiscult4 that results in the %a:raya¯na1 e appears together with+admapa¯n& i 02lotus6holder34, flanking S´a¯kyamuni in severalsurviving iconographic e7amples, and the identification of +admapa¯n& i with the favorite bodhisattva !valokite´svara musthave suggested a higher status for %a:rapa¯n& i as well1 This hereceives in the earliest tantras, /ut he still heads the lowestof the three families, for it is clearly taught that those who

receive consecration in his %a:ra family cannot perform ritesin the two higher families1$t is only in the *oga Tantras, which /ecome wellknown



from the eighth century onward, that %a:rapa¯n& icomes fully to the fore as the leading bodhisattva, for all theman&d&alas are /ased on the %a:radha¯tu 8an&d&ala, even thoseof the Buddha 0or !ll Buddhas4 family1 $t is thus from this

time on that one may correctly speak of a %a:raya¯na, as dis6BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S& '()(ST$!) BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S 1081("'*')#+(D$! # -()$.$#", S('#"D (D$T$#"

tinct in many ways from the 8aha¯ya¯na1 !ll the later tantras,which came to /e classed as Tantras of Supreme *oga, /elongeffectively to the %a:ra family1 $t is even said that %a:rapa¯n& ihimself taught them on the instructions of S´a¯kyamuni Buddha,for although the *oga Tantras and all earlier ones togetherwith all 8aha¯ya¯na su¯tras are e7plicitly taught as theword of the Buddha 0i1e1, S´a¯kyamuni4 himself, there wassome understanda/le hesitancy in attri/uting the *ogini Tantras, as they were earlier called, directly to him1 8oreover,as related a/ove, the si7th, supreme Buddha of these

tantras is named as %a:rasattva or %a:radhara, titles that areapplied e7clusively to %a:rapa¯n& i in the *oga Tantras1 Thuswith these e7clusive titles and with a slightly developediconographic form he attains the highest possi/le rank in theBuddhist pantheon1 $t has already /een pointed out that nolater development ever nullifies earlier ones, with the resultthat %a:rapa¯n& i continues to fulfill all the roles descri/eda/ove18a=:u´sr¯9 also /ecomes the representative of supreme/uddhahood in the Dharmadha¯tu 8an&d&ala< later he receivesa form e7pressing the union of 2means3 (upa¯a) and wisdom

in that he clasps his feminine partner to his /reast in themanner of all the great Tantric divinities of this class of tantra%?nown as 8a=:uva:ra, he is in essence identical with%a:radharaN%a:rasattva1 #n the other hand, !valokite´svararemains the most popular of the great bodhisattvas, especiallyin his triumphant eleven6headed thousand6armed form1 Butdespite his close relationship with Ta¯ra¯, his feminine counterpart,neither he nor she is even thought to have lost theirvirginity1 $t is interesting to note how all the great bodhisattvas,despite iconographic changes, preserve their most essentialattri/utes throughout the whole history of Buddhism1Being a powerful queller of the foe, it is %a:rapa¯n& i who forci/lyconverts the great gods of induism, thus /ecomingtheir leader and finally the representative of all terri/le divinitieswho are raised to high Buddhist rank1 8a=:u´sr¯9 remainsthe representative of pure Buddhist teaching 0despite his a/errationalform as 8a=:uva:ra4& when the followers of Tsong?ha pa 0@OIG@F@A4 look for a suita/ly holy lineage for theleader of the reformed Ti/etan Dge lugs pa 02yellow hat34order, they identify him as an incarnation of this particular

bodhisattva% !valokite´svara remains popular for his un/oundedcompassion for the sufferings of all living /eings1$n order to save living /eings, he is prepared to /e /orn inany of the wretched places of e7istence, among suffering animalsor tormented spirits, and even in the regions of hell1 $t

was thus not difficult to suggest that he might also deli/eratelyappear on earth as a recogni>a/le incarnation1 Since the Ti/etans, in accordance with their pre6Buddhist /eliefs, accepted



their early kings 0those from the si7th to the ninthcentury4 as divine representatives from the heavens, it is notat all surprising that the king during whose reign Buddhismwas first introduced into the country 0namely Sron /rstansgam po, d1 CIEQ4 should have /een retrospectively regardedas an incarnation of the bodhisattva !valokite´svara15hen the fifth Dalai )ama reunited Ti/et under hisrule in @CF this same distinction was claimed for him, andsince then all succeeding Dalai )amas, while /eing theoreticallyreincarnations of their predecessors, are at the sametime honored as incarnations of !valokite´svara1 #ther interestinghigh incarnations are those of the .rand )ama of Bkra´sis lhun po 0Tashilhunpo4, who is identified traditionallywith the /uddha !mita¯/ha, and the a//ess of Bsam6sdings8onastery 0now presuma/ly destroyed4, near the *ar ;/rog0*amdrok4 )ake, who is identified with the/oar6headed partner of the horrific Tantric Buddha'akrasam& vara, known as %a:rava¯ra¯h¯9 02adamantine sow34, asufficient indication that such 2converted3 indu divinities

were in practice accorded bodhisattva rank1rom the a/ove comments it should /e clear that it isdifficult to draw distinctions in late $ndian Buddhism andin Ti/etan religion, which inherits the greater part of $ndianBuddhist traditions, /etween bodhisattvas and other divinitieswho are effectively raised to bodhisattva rank1 Thus, tomy knowledge the position of the four chief goddesses,)ocana¯, 8a¯mak¯9, and so forth, as well as that of the femininepartners of the great Tantric divinities 0who are themselvesmanifestly accorded full /uddha rank4 is scarcely defina/lein traditional Buddhist terms1 They are all said to /e manifestationsof the +erfection of 5isdom, at least according to thelater Tantric theories, and thus an associate /uddha rankmust /e assumed for them1 'learer distinctions, however,continue to remain /etween /uddhas and bodhisattvas, in accordancewith the ideas prevalent during the earliest Buddhistperiod1 !ccording to purist theories, once a bodhisattvaachieves enlightenment and there/y /ecomes a /uddha02enlightened34 he effectively passes /eyond the realm of imperfectliving /eings1 The fact that Sá¯kyamuni Buddha continuedto work for the good of others during the forty6fiveyears that elapsed /etween his enlightenment at the age of thirty6five and his decease (parinirva¯n& a) at the age of eightycreated a philosophical pro/lem for the philosophers of theearly schools1 #nly as bodhisattva can there /e no dou/t of his a/ility to respond to the needs of lesser /eings1 $t may/e for this reason that some early Buddha images are inscri/edas bodhisattva images, for Sá¯kyamuni in the earliestperiod could /e regarded as /oth /uddha and bodhisattva% The cult of 8aitreya as future /uddha soon supplied theneed for a bodhisattva, who could still assist living /eings solong as he had not entered the impassive state of Buddhahood1is cult was followed /y that of !valokite´svara, the2lord who looks down 0in compassion4,3 dou/tless suggested/y Sá¯kyamuni;s previous e7istence in the heavens, when as

bodhisattva he had looked down on suffering living /eings1

The whole bodhisattva doctrine represents a remarka/le aspectof Buddhist religion, e7pressing a degree of compassionateconcern for others that is either far less developed or lackingaltogether in other $ndian religious traditions1 The



distinction /etween a /uddha who represents an ideal statestill to /e achieved and a bodhisattva who assists one on the1082 BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S& '()(ST$!) BUDD!S !"D B#D$S!TT%!S("'*')#+(D$! # -()$.$#", S('#"D (D$T$#"way there remains fairly clear throughout the whole historyof Buddhism1 #nly rarely can a /uddha /ecome an o/:ectof prayer and supplication1 #ne well6known e7ception is

!mita¯/ha, the Buddha of the 5est1 But one may note thathis cult, so strong in 'hina and Lapan, is /ased upon theSukha¯vativu¯ha Su¯tra, which lists the many aspirations of themonk Dharma¯kara toward achieving /uddhahood in a /uddhaparadise, where he may still /e availa/le for the solaceof living /eings in the most marvelous manner possi/le1 Thisparticular Buddha cult may therefore /e regarded as e7ceptional1SEE ALSO !mita¯/ha< !rhat< !valokite´svara< Bodhisattva+ath< Buddha< Buddhism, Schools of, articles on (sotericBuddhism, 8aha¯ya¯na +hilosophical Schools of Buddhism<'osmology, article on Buddhist 'osmology< ?s& itigar/ha<8aha¯vairocana< 8aitreya< 8an&d&alas, article on Buddhist8an&d&alas< 8a=:u´sr¯9< "irva¯n& a< +ure and $mpure )ands< Soteriology<

Ta¯ra¯< Tatha¯gata1BIBLIOGRAPHY

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buddhas and bodhisattva1

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