burj khalifa@abhishek
TRANSCRIPT
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Burj Khalifa
Burj Khalifa ( Arabic : ة ف ي ل خ ج ر ب " Khalifa Tower"),[2]
formerly known as Burj Dubai, is
a skyscraper in Dubai , United Arab Emirates , and the tallest man-made structure ever built, at 828 m
(2,717 ft).[2]
Construction began on 21 September 2004, with the exterior of the structure completed on 1
October 2009. The building officially opened on 4 January 2010 .[1][9]
The building is part of the 2 km 2
(490-
acre) flagship development called Downtown Burj Khalifa at the "First Interchange" along Sheikh Zayed
Road , near Dubai's main business district.
The tower's architecture and engineering were performed by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill of
Chicago. Adrian Smith , who worked with Skidmore, Owings and Merrill until 2006, was the chief architect,
and Bill Baker was the chief structural engineer for the project .[10][11]
The primary contractor was Samsung
C&T of South Korea , who also built the Taipei 101 and Petronas Twin Towers .[12]
Major subcontractors
included Belgian group Besix and Arabtec from the UAE . Turner Construction Company was chosen as
the construction project manager .[13]
Under UAE law, the Contractor and the Engineer of Record are jointly
and severally liable for the performance of Burj Khalifa. Therefore, by adoption of SOM's design and by
being appointed as Architect and Engineer of Record, Hyder Consulting is legally the Design Consultant
for the tower.
The total cost for the Burj Khalifa project was about US $ 1.5 billion; and for the entire new "Downtown
Dubai", US$20 billion .[14]
Mohamed Ali Alabbar , the Chairman of Emaar Properties , speaking at
the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat 8th World Congress, said in March 2009 that the price of
office space at Burj Khalifa had reached US$4,000 per sq ft (over US$43,000 per m 2 ) and that the Armani
Residences , also in Burj Khalifa, were selling for US$3,500 per sq ft (over US$37,500 per m 2 ).
[15] The
completion of the tower coincided with a worldwide economic slump and overbuilding, causing it to be
described as "the latest ... in [a] string of monuments to architectural vacancy
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Height
Current records
Tallest skyscraper to top of spire: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously Taipei 101 – 509.2 m/1,671 ft)
Tallest structure ever built: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously Warsaw radio mast – 646.38 m/2,121 ft)
Tallest extant structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously KVLY-TV mast – 628.8 m/2,063 ft)
Tallest freestanding structure: 828 m (2,717 ft) (previously CN Tower – 553.3 m/1,815 ft)
Building with most floors: 160 (previously Willis Tower – 108 )[17]
World's highest elevator installation,situated inside a rod at the very top of the building [18][19]
World's fastest elevators at speed of 64 km/h (40 mph) or 18 m/s (59 ft/s )[19]
(previously Taipei 101 –
16.83 m/s)
Highest vertical concrete pumping (for a building): 606 m (1,988 ft )[20]
(previously Taipei 101 –
449.2 m/1,474 ft)
Highest vertical concrete pumping (for any construction): 606 m (1,988 ft )[20]
(previously Riva del
Garda Hydroelectric Power Plant – 532 m/1,745 f t [21]
)
The first world's tallest structure in history to include residential space [22]
Highest outdoor observation deck in the world (124th floor) at 442 m (1,450 ft )[23]
[24][25]
World's highest mosque (located on the 158th floor )[26][27]
World's highest installation of an aluminium and glass façade, at a height of 512 m (1,680 ft )[28]
World's highest swimming pool (76th floor )[26]
(previously Shanghai World Financial Center – 85th
floor)
There are unconfirmed reports of several planned height increases since its inception. Originally
proposed as a virtual clone of the 560 m (1,837 ft )Grollo Tower proposal
for Melbourne , Australia ' s Docklands waterfront development , the tower was redesigned with an original
design by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) discussed below .[29]
Marshall Strabala , an SOM architect
who worked on the project until 2006, late 2008 said that Burj Khalifa was designed to be 808 m (2,650 ft)
tall .[30]
The design architect, Adrian Smith, felt that the uppermost section of the building did not culminate
elegantly with the rest of the structure, so he sought and received approval to increase it to the current
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height.[ citation needed ]
It has been explicitly stated that this change did not include any added floors, which is
fitting with Smith's attempts to make the crown more slender
Delay
Emaar Properties announced on 9 June 2008 that construction of Burj Khalifa was delayed by upgraded
finishes and would be completed only in September 2009 .[32]
An Emaar spokesperson said "The luxury
finishes that were decided on in 2004, when the tower was initially conceptualized, is now being replaced
by upgraded finishes. The design of the apartments has also been enhanced to make them more
aesthetically attractive and functionally superior." [33]
A revised completion date of 2 December 2009 was
then announced .[34]
However, Burj Khalifa was opened on 4 January 2010
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The tower is designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, which also designed the Willis Tower (formerly
the Sears Tower) in Chicago , Illinois and 1 World Trade Center in New York City , among numerous other
famous high-rises. The building resembles the bundled tube form of the Willis Tower, but is not a tube
structure. Its design is reminiscent of Frank Lloyd Wright ' s vision for The Illinois , a mile-high skyscraper
designed for Chicago. According to Marshall Strabala, an SOM architect who worked on the building's
design team, Burj Khalifa was designed based on the 73-floor Tower Palace Three , an all-residential
building in Seoul , South Korea . In its early planning, Burj Khalifa was intended to be entirely residential .[30]
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Subsequent to the original design by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, Emaar Properties chose Hyder
Consulting to be the supervising engineer .[35]
Hyder was selected for its expertise in structural
and MEP (mechanical, electrical and plumbing) engineering .[36]
Hyder Consulting's role was to supervise
construction, certify SOM's design, and be the engineer and architect of record to the UAE
authorities .[35] Emaar Properties also engaged GHD ,[37] an international multidisciplinary consulting firm, to
act as an independent verification and testing authority for concrete and steelwork.
The design of Burj Khalifa is derived from patterning systems [38]
embodied in Islamic architecture .
According to the structural engineer Bill Baker of Burj Khalifa, the building's design incorporates cultural
and historical elements particular to the region. The Y-shaped plan is ideal for residential and hotel
usage, with the wings allowing maximum outward views and inward natural light .[39]
The design architect
Adrian Smith has said the triple-lobed footprint of the building was inspired by the
flower Hymenocallis .[40]
The tower is composed of three elements arranged around a central core. As the
tower rises from the flat desert base, setbacks occur at each element in an upward spiralling pattern,
decreasing the cross section of the tower as it reaches toward the sky. There are 27 terraces in Burj
Khalifa. At the top, the central core emerges and is sculpted to form a finishing spire. A Y-shaped floor
plan maximizes views of the Persian Gulf . Viewed from above or from the base, the form also evokes
the onion domes of Islamic architecture. During the design process, engineers rotated the building 120
degrees from its original layout to reduce stress from prevailing winds. At its tallest point, the tower sways
a total of 1.5 m (4.9 ft).[41]
To support the unprecedented height of the building, the engineers developed a
new structural system called the buttressed core, which consists of a hexagonal core reinforced by three
buttresses that form the ‘Y' shape. This structural system enables the building to support itself laterally
and keeps it from twisting [42]
. The spire of Burj Khalifa is composed of more than 4,000 tonnes (4,400 ST;
3,900 LT) of structural steel. The central pinnacle pipe weighing 350 tonnes (390 ST; 340 LT) was
constructed from inside the building and jacked to its full height of over 200 m (660 ft) using a strand
jack system. The spire also houses communications equipment .[43]
More than 1,000 pieces of art will adorn the interiors of Burj Khalifa, while the residential lobby of Burj
Khalifa will have the artwork of 196 bronze and brass alloy cymbals representing the 196 countries of the
world. The visitors in this lobby will be able to hear a distinct timbre as the cymbals, plated with 18- carat gold , are struck by dripping water, intended to mimic the sound of water falling on leaves .
[44]
The exterior cladding of Burj Khalifa consists of 142,000 m 2
(1,528,000 sq ft) of reflective glazing ,
and aluminium and textured stainless steel spandrel p anels with vertical tubular fins. The cladding system
is designed to withstand Dubai's extreme summer temperatures. Additionally, the exterior temperature at
the top of the building is thought to be 6°C (11°F) cooler than at its base .[45]
Over 26,000 glass panels
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were used in the exterior cladding of Burj Khalifa. Over 300 cladding specialists from China were brought
in for the cladding work on the tower .[43]
The hotel interior will be decorated by Giorgio Armani . An Armani Hotel , the first of four by Armani, will
occupy 15 of the lower 39 floors .[46]
The hotel will be opened on 18 March 2010 .[47][48]
whereas the
Corporate Suites and offices, will be opened from March onwards .[49]
The sky lobbies on the 43rd and
76th floors will house swimming pools .[50]
Floors through to 108 will have 900 private
residential apartments (which, according to the developer, sold out within eight hours of being on the
market). An outdoor zero-entry swimming pool will be located on the 76th floor of the tower. Corporate
offices and suites fill most of the remaining floors, except for a 122nd, 123rd and 124th floor where
the At.mosphere restaurant, sky lobby and an indoor and outdoor observation deck is located
respectively. Burj Khalifa will receive its first residents from February 2010. They will be among the first of
25,000 people who will live there .[50][51]
The outdoor observation deck, opened on 5 January 2010, is the
highest in the world, at 442 m (1,450 ft). Tickets are time stamped at 30-minute intervals, on specific
days, in order to carefully manage the daily rush of sightseers. Introductory ticket price is AED 100 for
adults and AED 75 for children up to 12 years .[52]
Burj Khalifa is expected to hold up to 35,000 [53]
people at any one time .[54]
A total of 57 elevators and 8
escalators are installed ,[43]
,with the capacity of 12 to 14 people per cabin [55]
the fastest rising and
descending at up to 18 m/s (59 ft/s).[56]
Engineers had considered installing the world's first triple-deck
elevators, but the final design calls for double-deck elevators .[22]
Double-deck elevators, are with built in
light and entertainment features including LCD displays, which serves the visitors throughout their travel
to the Observation dec k [57]
The building has 2,909 stairs from the ground floor to the 160th floor .[58]
The graphic design identity work for Burj Khalifa is the responsibility of Brash Brands , who are based in
Dubai. Design of the global launch events, communications, and visitors center s [59]
f or Burj Khalifa have
also been created by Brash Brands as well as the roadshow exhibition for the Armani Residences, which
are part of the Armani Hotel within Burj Khalifa, which toured Milan, London, Jeddah, Moscow and Delhi
Water supply system
The Burj Khalifa's water system will supply an average of about 946,000 litres of water per day. At the
peak cooling times, the tower will require approximately 10,000 tonnes of cooling per hour, which is
equivalent to the capacity provided by 10,000 tonnes (22.4 million lbs or 10.2 million kg) of melting ice in
one day [61]
.
The building has a condensate collection system, which uses the hot and humid outside air, combined
with the cooling requirements of the building and will result in a significant amount of condensation of
moisture from the air. The condensed water will be collected and drained into a holding tank located in
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the basement car park,this water will then be pumped into the site irrigation system for use on the Burj
khalifa par k [62]
.
Maintenance
To wash the 24,348 windows, a horizontal track has been installed on the exterior of Burj Khalifa at levels
40, 73 and 109. Each track holds a 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) bucket machine which moves horizontally and
then vertically using heavy cables. Above level 109, up to tier 27 traditional cradles from davits are used.
The top of the spire, however, is reserved for specialist window cleaners, who brave the heights and high
winds dangling by ropes to clean and inspect the top of the pinnacle .[63]
Under normal conditions, when all
building maintenance units will be operational, it will take 36 workers three to four months to clean the
entire exterior facade .[43][64]
Unmanned machines will clean the top 27 additional tiers and the glass spire. The cleaning system was
developed in Australia at a cost of A$8 million .[64]
Outside, and at a cost of Dh 800 million (US$217 million), a record-setting fountain system was designed
by WET Design , the California - based company responsible for the fountains at the Bellagio Hotel Lake
in Las Vegas . Illuminated by 6,600 lights and 50 coloured projectors, it is 275 m (900 ft) long and shoots
water 150 m (490 ft) into the air, accompanied by a range of classical to contemporary Arabic and world
music .[65]
On 26 October 2008 Emaar announced that based on results of a naming contest the fountain
would be called the Dubai Fountain
Burj Khalifa park
Burj Khalifa is surrounded by an 11 ha (1,200,000 sq ft) park. The design of the park is also inspired by
the core design concepts of Burj Khalifa which is based on the symmetries of the desert
flower, Hymenocallis .[67]
The park has six water features, gardens, palm lined walkways, and flowering
trees .[68]
At the centre of the park and the base of Burj Khalifa is the water room, which is a series of pools
and water jet fountains. In addition the railing, benches and signs incorporate images of Burj Khalifa and
the Hymenocallis flower.
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The plants and the shrubbery will be watered by the buildings's condensation collection system,that uses
water from the cooling system. The system will provide 15,000,000 imp gal (68,000,000 L)
annually .[68]
WET designers , who also developed the Dubai Fountain , developed the park's six water
features
Construction
The tower was constructed by a South Korean company, Samsung Engineering & Construction, which
also did work on the Petronas Twin Towers a nd Taipei 101.[70]
Samsung Engineering & Construction is
building the tower in a joint venture with Besix from Belgium and Arabtec from UAE .Turner is the Project
Manager on the main construction contract.
The primary structural system of Burj Khalifa is reinforced concrete. Over 45,000 m 3
(58,900 cu yd) of
concrete, weighing more than 110,000 tonnes ( 120,000 ST ; 110,000 LT ) were used to construct the
concrete and steel foundation, which features 192 piles, with each pile is 1.5 metre diameter x 43 metre
long buried more than 50 m (164 ft) deep .[22]
Burj Khalifa's construction used 330,000 m 3
(431,600 cu yd)
of concrete and 55,000 tonnes of steel rebar, and construction took 22 million man-hours .[10]
A high
density, low permeability concrete was used in the foundations of Burj Khalifa. A cathodic
protection system under the mat is used to minimize any detrimental effects from corrosive chemicals in
local ground water .[43]
The previous record for pumping concrete on any project was set during the extension of the Riva del
Garda Hydroelectric Power Plant in Italy in 1994, when concrete was pumped to a height of 532 m
(1,745 ft). Burj Khalifa exceeded this height on 19 August 2007, and as of May 2008 concrete was
pumped to a delivery height of 606 m (1,988 ft) ,[20]
the 156th floor. The remaining structure above is built
of lighter steel .
Burj Khalifa is highly compartmentalised. Pressurized, air-conditioned refuge floors are located
approximately every 35 floors where people can shelter on their long walk down to safety in case of an
emergency or fire .[43][71]
Special mixes of concrete are made to withstand the extreme pressures of the massive building weight;
as is typical with reinforced concrete construction, each batch of concrete used was tested to ensure it
could withstand certain pressures.
The consistency of the concrete used in the project was essential. It was difficult to create a concrete that
could withstand both the thousands of tonnes bearing down on it and Persian Gulf temperatures that can
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reach 50 °C (122 °F). To combat this problem, the concrete was not poured during the day. Instead,
during the summer months ice was added to the mixture and it was poured at night when the air is cooler
and the humidity is higher. A cooler concrete mixture cures evenly throughout and is therefore less likely
to set too quickly and crack. Any significant cracks could have put the entire project in jeopardy.
The unique design and engineering challenges of building Burj Khalifa have been featured in a number of
television documentaries , including the Big, Bigger, Biggest series on the National
Geographic and Five channels, and the Mega Builders series on the Discovery Channel .
Labour controversy
Further information: Human rights in the United Arab Emirates
Burj Khalifa was built primarily by workers from South Asia .[72][73]
Press reports indicated in 2006 that
skilled carpenters at the site earned UK£ 4 .34 a day, and labourers earned UK£2.84 .[72]
According to a
BBC investigation and a Human Rights Watch report, the workers were housed in abysmal conditions,their pay was often withheld, their passports were confiscated by their employers, and they were working
in hazardous conditions that resulted in an apparently high number of deaths and injuries on site .[74]
On 21 March 2006, about 2,500 workers, who were upset over buses that were delayed for the end of
their shifts, protested, damaging cars, offices, computers, and construction equipment .[72]
A Dubai Interior
Ministry official said the rioters caused almost UK£500,000 in damage .[72]
Most of the workers involved in
the riot returned the following day but refused to work .[72]
On 17 June 2008, there were 7,500 skilled workers employed in the construction of Burj Khalifa .[32]
Milestones
January 2004: Excavation commences .[28]
February 2004: Piling starts .[28]
21 September 2004: Emaar contractors begin construction .[75]
March 2005: Structure of Burj Khalifa starts rising .[28]
June 2006: Level 50 is reached .[28]
February 2007: Surpasses the Sears Tower as the building with the most floors .
13 May 2007: Sets record for vertical concrete pumping on any building at 452 m (1,483 ft),surpassing the 449.2 m (1,474 ft) to which concrete was pumped during the construction o f Taipei
101, while Burj Khalifa reached 130 floor .[28][76]
21 July 2007: Surpasses Taipei 101, whose height of 509.2 m (1,671 ft) made it the world's tallest
building, and level 141 reached .[28][77]
12 August 2007: Surpasses the Sears Tower antenna, which stands 527.3 m (1,730 ft).
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12 September 2007: At 555.3 m (1,822 ft), becomes the world's tallest freestanding structure,
surpassing the CN Tower in Toronto , and level 150 reached .[28][78]
7 April 2008: At 629 m (2,064 ft), surpasses the KVLY-TV Mast to become the tallest man-made
structure, level 160 reached .[28][79]
17 June 2008: Emaar announces that Burj Khalifa's height is over 636 m (2,087 ft) and that its final
height will not be given until it is completed in September 2009 .[32]
1 September 2008: Height tops 688 m (2,257 ft), making it the tallest man-made structure ever built,
surpassing the previous record-holder, the Warsaw Radio Mast in Konstantynów ,Poland .[80]
17 January 2009: Topped out at 828 m (2,717 ft).[81]
1 October 2009: Emaar announces that the exterior of the building is completed .[82]
4 January 2010: Burj Khalifa's official launch ceremony is held and Burj Khalifa is opened. Burj Dubai
renamed Burj Khalifa in honour of the current President of the UAE and ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh
Khalifa bin Zayed al Nahyan .[2]
Floor plans
The following is a breakdown of floors .[43][83]
Floors Use
160 and above Mechanical
156-159 Communication and broadcast
155 Mechanical
139 –154 Corporate suites
136 –138 Mechanical
125 –135 Corporate suites
124 At the Top observatory
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123 Sky lobby
122 At.mosphere restaurant
111 –121 Corporate suites
109 –110 Mechanical
77 –108 Residential
76 Sky lobby
73 –75 Mechanical
44 –72 Residential
43 Sky lobby
40 –42 Mechanical
38 –39 Armani Hotel suites
19 –37 Armani Residences
17 –18 Mechanical
9 –16 Armani Residences
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1 –8 Armani Hotel
Ground Armani Hotel
Concourse Armani Hotel
B1 –B2 Parking, mechanical
Opening ceremony
The opening ceremony of Burj Khalifa was held on 4 January 2010 .[84]
The ceremony featured a display
of 10,000 fireworks, light beams projected on and around the tower, and further sound, light and water effects .
[85] Using the 868 powerful stroboscope lights that are integrated into the facade and spire of the
tower, different lighting sequences were choreographed, together with more than 50 different
combinations of the other effects.
The event began with a short film which depicted the story of Dubai and the evolution of Burj Khalifa. The
displays of sound, light, water and fireworks followed .[85]
The portion of the show consisting of the various
pyrotechnic, lighting, water and sound effects was divided into three. The first part was primarily a light
and sound show, which took as its theme the link between desert flowers and the new tower, and was co-
ordinated with the Dubai Fountain and pyrotechnics. The second portion, called 'Heart Beat', represented the construction of the tower in a dynamic light show with the help of 300 projectors which generated a
shadow-like image of the tower. In the third act, sky tracers and space cannons enveloped the tower in a
halo of white light, which expanded as the lighting rig on the spire activated .[85]
The ceremony was relayed live on a giant screen on Burj Park Island, as well as several television
screens placed across the Downtown Burj Khalifa development. Hundreds of media outlets from around
the world reported live from the scene .[85]
In addition to the media presence, 6,000 guests were
expected .[86]
Purpose Burj Khalifa has been designed to be the centrepiece of a large-scale, mixed-use development that will
include 30,000 homes, nine hotels such as The Address Downtown Burj Khalifa , 3 hectares (7.4 acres ) of
parkland, at least 19 residential towers, the Dubai Mall , and the 12-hectare (30-acre) man-made Burj
Khalifa Lake.
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The building has returned the location of Earth's tallest free-standing structure to the Middle East —
where the Great Pyramid of Giza claimed this achievement for almost four millennia before being
surpassed in 1311 by Lincoln Cathedral in England.
The decision to build Burj Khalifa is reportedly based on the government's decision to diversify from an
oil-based economy to one that is service- and tourism-oriented. According to officials, it is necessary for
projects like Burj Khalifa to be built in the city to garner more international recognition, and hence
investment. "He (Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum ) wanted to put Dubai on the map with
something really sensational," said Jacqui Josephson, a tourism and VIP delegations executive
at Nakheel Properties .[87]
BASE jumping
The building has been used by several experienced BASE jumpers for both authorized and unauthorized
BASE jumping:
In May 2008, Hervé Le Gallou and an unnamed British man, dressed as engineers, illegally infiltrated
Burj Khalifa (around 650 m at the time), and jumped off a balcony situated a couple of floors below
the 160th floor .[88][89]
On 8th January 2010, with permission of the authorities, Nasr Al Niyadi and Omar Al Hegelan, from
the Emirates Aviation Society, broke the world record for the highest BASE jump from a building after
they leapt from a crane suspended platform attached to the 160th floor at 672 m (2,200 ft). The two
men descended the vertical drop at a speed of up to 220 km/h (140 mph), with enough time to open
their parachutes 10 seconds into the 90 second jump
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Category Structure Country CityHeight
(metres)
Height
(feet)
Year
Built
Skyscraper - all
categoriesBurj Khalifa
United Arab
Emirates
Dubai 828 2,717 2009
Guyed Mast KVLY-TV mast United StatesBlanchard,
North Dakota628.8 2,063 1963
Concrete tower (Topped
out)
Guangzhou TV &
Sightseeing Tower
China Guangzhou 610 2,001 2009
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Concrete tower CN Tower Canada Toronto 553.3 1,815 1976
Tower for scientific
research
BREN Tower United StatesNevada Test
Site
462 1,516 1962
Twin towers
Petronas Twin
Towers
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 452 1,482 1998
Chimney
GRES-2 Power
Station
Kazakhstan Ekibastusz 419.7 1,377 1987
Radar
Dimona Radar
Facility
Israel Dimona 400 1,312 2008
Guyed tubular steel mast
Belmont
transmitting station
United
Kingdom
Donington on
Bain387.7 1,272 1965
Lattice tower Kiev TV Tower Ukraine Kiev 385 1,263 1973
Partially guyed tower Gerbrandy Tower Netherlands IJsselstein 366.8 1,203 1961
Electricity pylon
Yangtze River
Crossing, JiangyinChina Jiangyin 346.5 1,137 2004
Bridge pillar Millau Viaduct France Millau 342 1,122 2004
Dam Nurek Dam Tajikistan Nurek 300 984[7] 1980
Concrete damGrande Dixence
Dam
Switzerland Val d'Hérens 285 935[8]
1965
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Clock tower
NTT Docomo
Yoyogi Building
Japan Tokyo 240 790 2000
Minaret
Hassan II Mosque
Morocco Casablanca 210 689 1993
Wind turbine
Fuhrländer Wind
Turbine Laasow
GermanyLaasow,
Brandenburg205 673 2006
Cooling tower
Niederaussem
Power Station
Germany Niederaussem 200 656 2003
Monument Gateway Arch United StatesSt. Louis,
Missouri192 630 1965
Masonry tower
Anaconda Smelter
Stack
United StatesAnaconda,
Montana178.3 585 1919
Inclined structure,
Stadium Olympic Stadium Canada Montreal 175 574 1976
Obelisk
San Jacinto
Monument
United StatesDeer Park,
Texas173.7 570 1939
Church building
Chicago Temple
Building
United States Chicago 173 568 1924
Masonry building Mole Antonelliana Italy Torino 167 548 1889
Masonry buildingPhiladelphia City
Hall
United States Philadelphia 167 548 1901
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Ferris wheel Singapore Flyer Singapore Singapore 165 541.3 2008
Church tower Ulm Minster Germany Ulm 162 530 1890
Industrial hallVehicle Assembly
Building
United StatesKennedy Space
Center
160 525 1966
Memorial cross
Santa Cruz del Valle
de los Caídos
Spain El Escorial 152.4 500 1957
Roller coaster
Kingda Ka
United States
Jackson, New
Jersey 138.98 456 2005
Tomb
Great Pyramid of
Giza
Egypt Giza, Cairo 138.8 455.2 2560 BC
Dome
St Peter's
Basilica domeVatican City
Vatican City,
Rome136.57 448.06 1626
Air traffic control tower
Suvarnabhumi
Airport control
tower
Thailand Bangkok 132.2 433.7 2006
Flagpole, free-standing Ashgabat Flagpole Turkmenistan Ashgabat 133 436.4[9]
2008
Statue (including
pedestal)
Ushiku
Daibutsu Bronze
Buddha Statue
Japan Ushiku 120 394 1995
Storage silo Henninger Turm Germany Frankfurt 120 394 1961
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Sculpture Spire of Dublin Ireland Dublin 120 393 2003
Wooden structureGliwice Radio
Tower
Poland Gliwice 118 387 1935
Aerial tramway support
tower
Pillar of third
section of
Gletscherbahn
Kaprun
Austria Kaprun 113.6 373 1966
Lighthouse
Yokohama Marine
Tower
Japan Yokohama 106 348 1961
Sphere Ericsson Globe Sweden Stockholm 85 279 1989
Statue (not including
pedestal)
The Mamayev
Monument
Russia Volgograd 82 269 1967
Brick lighthouse Torre della
Lanterna
Italy Genoa 77 253 1128
Brick minaret Qutub Minar India Delhi 72.5 237.8 1386
[ edit ] Tallest destroyed structures by category, not surpassed by existingstructures There are some destroyed architectural structures which were taller than the tallest existing structure of
their type.
Category Structure Country CityHeight
(metres)
Height
(feet)Remarks
Guyed mast
Warsaw Radio
Mast
Poland Gąbin 646.38 2,121completed in 1974,
collapsed on 8 August 1991
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Guyed tubular
steel mast
Shushi-Wan
Omega
Transmitter
Japan Tsushima 389 1,276completed in 1973,
dismantled in 1998
Structure for
destructive
scientific
experiment
Smoky Shot
Tower
United
States
Nevada
Test Site
213 700
Guyed mast, which carried
44 kt yield nuclear bomb
"Smoky" ( part of operation
Plumbbob) on top until its
explosion on August 31,
1957
Wooden
structure
Mühlacker
Wood Radio
Tower
Germany Mühlacker 190 623
completed in 1934,
destroyed on April 6, 1945,
by the Germans to prevent
usage by the Allies.
Masonry
building
Mole
Antonelliana
Italy Torino 167.5 549.5
spire destroyed by
a tornado in 1953 (Rebuilt
since then).
Pre-Industrial
Era building
Lincoln
Cathedral
England Lincoln 160 524completed in 1311, spire
blown off in 1549
[ edit ] Tallest building by function
Category Structure Country CityArchitectural top
(metres)
Architectural top
(feet)
Mixed-Use* Burj Khalifa
United Arab
EmiratesDubai 828 2,717
Office Taipei 101 Taiwan Taipei 509 1,671
Hotel Rose Tower
United Arab
EmiratesDubai 333 1,093
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Residential Q1 AustraliaGold
Coast323 1,059
Educational Moscow StateUniversity
Russia Moscow 240 787
Hospital Guy's Hospital United Kingdom London 143 468
Library Shanghai Library China Shanghai 106 348
* Mixed-Use is defined as having three or more real estate uses (such as retail, office, hotel, etc.) that are
physically and functionally integrated in a single property and are mutually supporting .[10]
[ edit ] Tallest buildings
Main article: List of tallest buildings in the world
Up until 1998 the tallest building status was essentially uncontested. Counting buildings as structures with
floors throughout, and with antenna masts excluded, Sears Tower (now Willis Tower) in Chicago was
considered the tallest. When the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia were built,
controversy arose because the spire extended nine metres higher than the roof of Willis Tower. Excluding
the spire, the Petronas Towers are not taller than Willis Tower. At their convention in Chicago, the Council
on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) reduced Willis Tower from world's tallest and pronounced it
not second tallest, but third, and pronounced Petronas as world's tallest. This action caused a
considerable amount of controversy, so CTBUH defined four categories in which the world's tallest
building can be measured : [11]
1. Height to Architectural Top (including spires and pinnacles, but not antennas, masts or flagpoles).
This measurement is the most widely utilized and is used to define the rankings of the 100
Tallest Buildings in the World.
2. Highest Occupied Floor
3. Height to Top of Roof (omitted from criteria in November 2009 )[12]
4. Height to Tip
The height is measured from the level of the lowest, significant, open-air, pedestrian entrance. At the
time, the Sears Tower held first place in the second and third categories, the Petronas Towers held the
first category and the original World Trade Towers held the fourth. Within months, however, a new
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antenna mast was placed on the Sears Tower, giving it hold of the fourth category. On April 20, 2004,
Taipei 101 in Taipei, Taiwan, was completed. Its completion gave it the world record for the first three
categories. On July 21, 2007 it was announced that Burj Khalifa had surpassed Taipei 101 in height,
reaching 512 m (1,680 ft).
Since completed in early 2010, Burj Khalifa leads in all categories (the first building to do so). With a spire
height of 828 m (2,720 ft), Burj Khalifa surpassed Taipei 101 as the tallest building to architectural detail
and the Willis Tower as the tallest building to tip. It also leads in the category of highest occupied floor.
Before Burj Khalifa was completed, Willis Tower led in the fourth category with 527 m (1,730 ft),
previously held by the World Trade Center until the extension of the Chicago tower's western broadcast
antenna in 2000, over a year prior to the World Trade Center's destruction in 2001. Its antenna mast
included, One World Trade Center measured 526 m (1,730 ft). The World Trade Center became the
world's tallest buildings to be destroyed or demolished; indeed, its site entered the record books twice on
September 11, 2001, in that category, replacing the Singer Building , which once stood a block from the
WTC site.[ citation needed ]
Structures such as the CN Tower, the Ostankino Tower and the Oriental Pearl Tower are excluded from
these categories because they are not "habitable buildings", which are defined as frame structures made
with floors and walls throughout .[1]
[ edit ] History of record holders in each CTBUH category
Date (Event) Architectural
top
Highest occupied
floor
Roof Tip
2010: Burj Khalifa completed Burj Khalifa Burj Khalifa Burj Khalifa
2009: CTBUH omits Height to
Roof categoryTaipei 101
Shanghai World
Financial CenterWillis Tower
2008: Shanghai World Financial
Center completed Taipei 101
Shanghai World
Financial Center
Shanghai World
Financial Center Willis Tower
2003: Taipei 101 completed Taipei 101 Taipei 101 Taipei 101 Willis Tower
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2000: Willis Tower antenna extension Petronas Towers Willis Tower Willis Tower Willis Tower
1998: Petronas Towers completed Petronas Towers Willis Tower Willis TowerWorld Trade
Center
1996: CTBUH defines categories Willis Tower Willis Tower Willis TowerWorld Trade
Center
[ edit ] World's tallest freestanding structure on land
Main article: List of tallest freestanding structures in the world
Freestanding structures include observation towers, monuments and other structures not generally
considered to be "Habitable buildings", but excludes supported structures such as guyed masts and
ocean drilling platforms. (See also history of tallest skyscrapers . )
The world's tallest freestanding structure on land is defined as the tallest self-supporting man-
made structure that stands above ground. This definition is different from that of world's tallest
building or world's tallest structure based on the percent of the structure that is occupied and whether or
not it is self-supporting or supported by exterior cables. Likewise, this definition does not count structures
that are built underground or on the seabed , such as the Petronius Platform in the Gulf of Mexico .
Visit world's tallest structure by category for a list of various other definitions.
As of 12 May 2008, the tallest freestanding structure on land is the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, United Arab
Emirates. The building, which now stands at 828 m (2,720 ft), surpassed the height of the previous record
holder, the 553.3 m (1,815 ft) CN Tower in Toronto, Ontario, on September 12, 2007. It was completed in
2010, and was topped out at 828 m (2,717 ft) in January 2009 .[2]
[ edit ] History
The following is a list of structures that have held the title as the tallest freestanding structure on
land. (See also Timeline of three tallest structures in the world until Empire State Building).
tallest historical structures
record
from
record
to
Name and
LocationConstructed
Height
(metres)
Height
(feet)Notes
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c. 2700 BC c. 2600 BCPyramid of Djoser,
Egyptc. 2700 BC 62 203
c. 2600 BC c. 2570 BCRedPyramid of Sneferu,
Egypt
c. 2600 BC 105 345
c. 2570 BC c. 1311 ADGreat Pyramid of
Giza in Egyptc. 2570 BC 146 481
By 1439, the Great
Pyramid had eroded to a
height of approximately
139 m (460 ft).
1311 1549Lincoln Cathedral in
England1092 –1311 160 525
The central spire was
destroyed in a storm in
1549. While the reputed
height of 525 ft (160 m) is
doubted by A.F.
Kendrick,[13]
other
sources[which? ]
agree on
this height.
1549 1625
St. Olaf's
Church in Tallinn,
Estonia
1438 –1519 159 522
The spire burnt down
after a lightning strike in
1625 and was rebuilt
several times. The height
is 123 m (400 ft) .
1625 1647
St. Mary's
Church in Stralsund,
Germany
1384 –1478 151 495
The spire burnt down
after a lightning strike in
1647. The height is 104 m
(340 ft) .
1647 1874Strasbourg
Cathedral in France1439 142 469
1874 1876St. Nikolai in
1846 –1874 147 483
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Hamburg, Germany
1876 1880
Cathédrale Notre
Dame in Rouen,
France
1202 –1876 151 495
1880 1884Cologne Cathedral in
Germany1248 –1880 157 515
1884 1889
Washington
Monument in
Washington D.C.,
United States
1884 169 555
1889 1930Eiffel Tower in Paris,
France1889 300 986
First structure to exceed
300 metres in height. The
addition of a
telecommunications
tower in the 1950s
brought the overall height
to 324 m (1,060 ft).
1930 1931
Chrysler Building in
New York, United
States
1928 –1930 319 1,046
1931 1967
Empire State
Building in New York,
United States
1930 –1931 381 1,250
First building with 100+
stories. The addition of a
pinnacle and antennas
later increased its overall
height to 448.7 m
(1,472 ft). This wassubsequently lowered to
443.1 m (1,454 ft).
1967 1975Ostankino Tower in
Moscow, Russia1963 –1967 537 1,762 Remains the tallest in
Europe. Fire in 2000 led to
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extensive renovation.
1975 2007CN Tower in Toronto,
Canada1973 –1976 553 1,815
Remains the tallest in
the Western Hemisphere
2007 presentBurj Khalifa in Dubai,
United Arab Emirates2004 –2009 828 2,717
Holder of world's tallest
freestanding structure.
Topped out at 828 m
(2,717 ft).
World's highest observation deckMain article: Observation deck
Timeline of development of world's highest observation deck since inauguration of Eiffel Tower.
Held
record
Name and Location Constructed
Height
above
ground
(m)
Height
above
ground
(ft)
Notes
From To
1889 1931Eiffel
Tower, Paris, France 1889 275 902
Two further observation decks
at 57 m (190 ft) and 115 m
(380 ft).
1931 1973Empire State Building,
New York City, USA1931 369
[14] 1211
A second observation deck is
located on the 86th floor at
320 m (1,000 ft).
1973 1976World Trade Center,
New York City, USA1973 420 1378
Destroyed during
the September 11, 2001
attacks
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1976 2008CN Tower, Toronto,
Canada1976 446.5 1464.9
Two further observation decks
at 342 m (1,120 ft) and 346 m
(1,140 ft).
2008 present
Shanghai World
Financial Center,
Shanghai, China
2008 474 1555
Other observation decks are at
423 m (1,390 ft) and 439 m
(1,440 ft).
Note: Burj Khalifa, opened on
4 January 2010, has the
world's highest outdoor
observation deck at 442 m
(1,450 ft).
Higher observation decks have existed on mountain peaks or cliffs , rather than on tall structures. For example, the Royal Gorge Bridge in Cañon City, Colorado , USA, was constructed in 1929 spanning
the Royal Gorge at a height of 321 m (1,050 ft) above the Arkansas River .
[ edit ] Timeline of guyed structures on land
As most of the tallest structures are guyed masts and the absolute height record of architectural
structures on land is since 1954 kept by them, here is a timeline of world's tallest guyed masts, since the
beginning of radio technology.
As many large guyed masts were destroyed at the end of World War II, the dates for the years between
1945 and 1950 may be incorrect. If Wusung Radio Tower survived World War II, it was the tallest guyed
structure shortly after World War II.
Held
record
Name and Location ConstructedHeight
(m)
Height
(ft)Notes
From To
1913 1920Central mast of Eilvese
transmitter, Eilvese, Germany1913 250 820
Mast was divided in 145 m by
an insulator, demolished in
1931
1920 1923 Central masts of Nauen
Transmitter Station, Nauen,
1920 260 853 2 masts, demolished in 1946
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Germany
1923 1933Masts of Ruiselede transmitter,
Ruiselede, Belgium1923 287 942 8 masts, destroyed in 1940
1933 1939Lakihegy Tower, Lakihegy,
Hungary1933 314 1,031
Blaw-Knox Tower, insulated
against ground, destroyed in
1945, afterwards rebuilt
1939 1946
Deutschlandsender
Herzberg/Elster, Herzberg
(Elster), Germany
1939 335 1,099Insulated against ground,
dismantled 1946/1947
1946 1948Lakihegy Tower, Lakihegy,
Hungary1946 314 1,031
Blaw-Knox Tower, Insulated
against ground, rebuilt after
destruction in 1945
1948 1949WIVB-TV Tower, Colden, New
York, USA1948 321.9 1,056
1949 1950 Longwave transmitter Raszyn, Raszyn, Poland
1949 335 1,099 Insulated against ground
1950 1954Forestport Tower, Forestport,
New York, USA1950 371.25 1,218 Insulated against ground
1954 1959
Griffin Television Tower
Oklahoma, Oklahoma City,
Oklahoma, USA
1954 480.5 1,576
1956 1959KOBR-TV Tower, Caprock, New
Mexico, USA1956 490.7 1,610 Collapsed in 1960
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1959 1960WGME TV Tower, Raymond,
Maine, USA1959 495 1,624
1960 1962 KFVS TV Mast, Cape GirardeauCounty, Missouri, USA
1960 511.1 1,677
1962 1963WTVM/WRBL-TV & WVRK-FM
Tower, Cusseta, Georgia, USA1962 533 1,749
1963 1963WIMZ-FM-Tower, Knoxville,
Tennessee, USA1963 534.01 1,752
1963 1974KVLY-TV mast, Blanchard,
North Dakota, USA1963 628.8 2,063
1974 1991Warsaw Radio Mast, Gąbin,
Poland1974 646.4 2,121
Mast radiator insulated
against ground, collapsed in
1991
1991KVLY-TV mast, Blanchard,
North Dakota, USA1963 628.8
2,063
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Under construction
Numerous supertall skyscrapers are in various stages of proposal, planning, or construction. Each of the
following are under construction and, depending on the order of completion, could become the world's
tallest building or structure in at least one category:
The Tokyo Sky Tree under construction in Tokyo's Sumida district, is expected to be 634 m (2,080 ft)
tall. It will be a broadcasting tower to replace the old Tokyo Tower . Construction began in 2008 and
completion is expected in 2011, with public access in the spring of 2012.
The Shanghai Tower , under construction in Shanghai, next to the Shanghai World Financial
Center and the Jin Mao Building , is expected to be 632 m (2,070 ft). Completion is expected in 2014.
The Pentominium , under construction in Dubai, is expected to be 516 m (1,690 ft) tall and have 120
floors. If completed, it would be the tallest all-residential building in the world. Construction began in
2007 and completion is expected in 2013.
Incheon Tower is a 151-floor, 610 m (2,000 ft) twin tower under construction in Incheon , South Korea .
If completed, it will stand as the tallest twin towers in the world, surpassing th e Petronas Twin Towers .
It is estimated to be completed in 2012.
The Guangzhou TV & Sightseeing Tower , under construction in Guangzhou, China , is topped-out at
610 m (2,000 ft). Construction began in November 2005 and completion is expected in 2009.
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The Chicago Spire (formerly Fordham Spire), under construction in Chicago , is expected to be
609.6 m (2,000 ft) and have 150 floors. If completed, it would surpass the CN Tower as the tallest
freestanding building in North America ,[16]
and would be the second tallest all-residential building in
the world (behind the aforementioned Pentominium ). Construction began in June 2007 and
completion is expected in early 2012, however, construction is on hold .[17]
The Abraj Al Bait Towers are under construction in Mecca , Saudi Arabia . The tallest tower is
expected to be 595 m (1,950 ft) tall when completed in 2010, becoming second-tallest building in the
world when completed. It will also be the largest building in the world with a floor area of
1,500,000 m 2
(1.61E+7 sq ft) and the tallest hotel in the world .
The Jakarta Tower (Menara Jakarta) is on-hold in Jakarta , Indonesia. It is expected to be 558 m
(1,830 ft) tall up to the antenna, thus may be tallest concrete tower. It was expected to be completed
in 2012, but has been put on hold .[18]
The Keangnam Hanoi Landmark Tower , under construction in Hanoi , Vietnam is expected to be 336 m (1,100 ft) tall. It will be completed on time in 2010 to celebrate Hanoi's 1000 anniversary.
The Federation Tower East , under construction in Moscow's International Business Centre , is
expected to be 242 m (790 ft) tall. Construction began in 2003 and completion is expected in 2010.
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