mile Durkheim 1

mile Durkheim

mile Durkheim

French sociologist

Born David mile DurkheimApril 15, 1858pinal, France

Died November 15, 1917 (aged59)Paris, France

Citizenship French

Nationality French

Fields Philosophy, Sociology, Anthropology, Religious Studies

Institutions Universit de Bordeaux, La Sorbonne, Ecoles des Hautes Etudes Internationales et Politiques HEI-HEP

Knownfor Institutionalizing sociology

Influences Immanuel Kant, Ibn Khaldun, Ren Descartes, Plato, Herbert Spencer, Aristotle, Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, AugusteComte. William James, John Dewey, Charles Sanders Peirce, Fustel de Coulanges

Influenced Marcel Mauss, Claude Lvi-Strauss, Talcott Parsons, Maurice Halbwachs, Lucien Lvy-Bruhl, Bronisaw Malinowski, FernandBraudel, Pierre Bourdieu, Charles Taylor, Henri Bergson, Emmanuel Levinas, Steven Lukes, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, E. E.Evans-Pritchard, Mary Douglas, Paul Fauconnet, Robert Bellah, Ziya Gkalp, David Bloor, Randall Collins, Jonathan Haidt

David mile Durkheim (French:[emil dykm] or [dykajm];[1] April 15, 1858 November 15, 1917) was a Frenchsociologist. He formally established the academic discipline and, with Karl Marx and Max Weber, is commonlycited as the principal architect of modern social science and father of sociology.[][2]

Much of Durkheim's work was concerned with how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence inmodernity; an era in which traditional social and religious ties are no longer assumed, and in which new socialinstitutions have come into being. His first major sociological work was The Division of Labor in Society (1893). In1895, he published his Rules of the Sociological Method and set up the first European department of sociology,becoming France's first professor of sociology.[] In 1898, he established the journal L'Anne Sociologique.Durkheim's seminal monograph, Suicide (1897), a study of suicide rates in Catholic and Protestant populations,pioneered modern social research and served to distinguish social science from psychology and political philosophy.The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912), presented a theory of religion, comparing the social and culturallives of aboriginal and modern societies.Durkheim was also deeply preoccupied with the acceptance of sociology as a legitimate science. He refined the positivism originally set forth by Auguste Comte, promoting what could be considered as a form of epistemological realism, as well as the use of the hypothetico-deductive model in social science. For him, sociology was the science of institutions if this term is understood in its broader meaning as "beliefs and modes of behaviour instituted by the

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collectivity" [3] and its aim being to discover structural social facts. Durkheim was a major proponent of structuralfunctionalism, a foundational perspective in both sociology and anthropology. In his view, social science should bepurely holistic;[citation needed] that is, sociology should study phenomena attributed to society at large, rather thanbeing limited to the specific actions of individuals.He remained a dominant force in French intellectual life until his death in 1917, presenting numerous lectures andpublished works on a variety of topics, including the sociology of knowledge, morality, social stratification, religion,law, education, and deviance. Durkheimian terms such as "collective consciousness" have since entered the popularlexicon.[4]

Biography

Childhood and educationDurkheim was born in pinal in Lorraine, coming from a long line of devout French Jews; his father, grandfather,and great-grandfather had been rabbis.[] He began his education in a rabbinical school, but at an early age, he decidednot to follow in his family's rabbinical footsteps, and switched schools.[][] Durkheim himself would lead acompletely secular life. Much of his work was dedicated to demonstrating that religious phenomena stemmed fromsocial rather than divine factors. While Durkheim chose not to follow in the family tradition, he did not sever tieswith his family or with the Jewish community.[] Many of his most prominent collaborators and students were Jewish,and some were blood relations.A precocious student, Durkheim entered the cole Normale Suprieure (ENS) in 1879, at his third attempt.[][] Theentering class that year was one of the most brilliant of the nineteenth century and many of his classmates, such asJean Jaurs and Henri Bergson would go on to become major figures in France's intellectual history. At the ENS,Durkheim studied under the direction of Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges, a classicist with a social scientificoutlook, and wrote his Latin dissertation on Montesquieu.[] At the same time, he read Auguste Comte and HerbertSpencer. Thus Durkheim became interested in a scientific approach to society very early on in his career.[] Thismeant the first of many conflicts with the French academic system, which had no social science curriculum at thetime. Durkheim found humanistic studies uninteresting, turning his attention from psychology and philosophy toethics and eventually, sociology.[] He finished second to last in his graduating class when he obtained his agrgationin philosophy in 1882.There was no way that a man of Durkheim's views could receive a major academic appointment in Paris. From 1882to 1887 he taught philosophy at several provincial schools.[] In 1885 he decided to leave for Germany, where for twoyears he studied sociology in Marburg, Berlin and Leipzig.[] As Durkheim indicated in several essays, it was inLeipzig that he learned to appreciate the value of empiricism and its language of concrete, complex things, in sharpcontrast to the more abstract, clear and simple ideas of the Cartesian method.[5] By 1886, as part of his doctoraldissertation, he had completed the draft of his The Division of Labor in Society, and was working towardsestablishing the new science of sociology.[]

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Academic career

A collection of Durkheim's courses on the originsof socialism (1896), edited and published by his

nephew, Marcel Mauss, in 1928.

Durkheim's period in Germany resulted in the publication of numerousarticles on German social science and philosophy; Durkheim wasparticularly impressed by the work of Wilhelm Wundt.[] Durkheim'sarticles gained recognition in France, and he received a teachingappointment in the University of Bordeaux in 1887, where he was toteach the university's first social science course.[] His official title wasCharg d'un Cours de Science Sociale et de Pdagogie and thus hetaught both pedagogy and sociology (the latter had never been taughtin France before).[][] The appointment of the social scientist to themostly humanistic faculty was an important sign of the change oftimes, and also the growing importance and recognition of the socialsciences.[] From this position Durkheim helped reform the Frenchschool system and introduced the study of social science in itscurriculum. However, his controversial beliefs that religion andmorality could be explained in terms purely of social interaction earnedhim many critics.

Also in 1887, Durkheim married Louise Dreyfus. They would havetwo children, Marie and Andr.[]

The 1890s were a period of remarkable creative output for Durkheim.[]

In 1892, he published The Division of Labour in Society, his doctoral dissertation and fundamental statement of thenature of human society and its development.[] Durkheim's interest in social phenomena was spurred on by politics.France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War led to the fall of the regime of Napoleon III, which was then replaced bythe Third Republic. This in turn resulted in a backlash against the new secular and republican rule, as many peopleconsidered a vigorously nationalistic approach necessary to rejuvenate France's fading power. Durkheim, a Jew and astaunch supporter of the Third Republic with a sympathy towards socialism, was thus in the political minority, asituation which galvanized him politically. The Dreyfus affair of 1894 only strengthened his activist stance.[]

In 1895, he published Rules of the Sociological Method,[] a manifesto stating what sociology is and how it ought tobe done, and founded the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux. In 1898, he foundedL'Anne Sociologique, the first French social science journal.[] Its aim was to publish and publicize the work of whatwas, by then, a growing number of students and collaborators (this is also the name used to refer to the group ofstudents who developed his sociological program). Durkheim was familiar with several foreign languages andreviewed academic papers in German, English, and Italian for the journal. In 1897, he published Suicide, a casestudy which provided an example of what the sociological monograph might look like. Durkheim was one of thepioneers of using quantitative methods in criminology during his suicide case study.By 1902, Durkheim had finally achieved his goal of attaining a prominent position in Paris when he became thechair of education at the Sorbonne. Durkheim aimed for the Parisian position earlier, but the Parisian faculty tooklonger to accept what some called "sociological imperialism" and admit social science to their curriculum.[] Hebecame a full professor (Professor of the Science of Education) there in 1906, and in 1913 he was named Chair in"Education and Sociology".[][] Because French universities are technically institutions for training secondary schoolteachers, this position gave Durkheim considerable influencehis lectures were the only ones that were mandatoryfor the entire student body. Durkheim had much influence over the new generation of teachers; around that time healso served as an advisor to the Ministry of Education.[] In 1912, he published his last major work, The ElementaryForms of The Religious Life.

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mile Durkheim's grave in Montparnasse Cemetery

The outbreak of World War I was to have a tragic effect onDurkheim's life. His leftism was always patriotic rather thaninternationalisthe sought a secular, rational form of French life.But the coming of the war and the inevitable nationalistpropaganda that followed made it difficult to sustain this alreadynuanced position. While Durkheim actively worked to support hiscountry in the war, his reluctance to give in to simplisticnationalist fervor (combined with his Jewish background) madehim a natural target of the now-ascendant French Right. Evenmore seriously, the generations of students that Durkheim hadtrained were now being drafted to serve in the army, and many ofthem perished in the trenches. Finally, Durkheim's own son,Andr, died on the war front in December 1915a loss from which Durkheim never recovered.[][] Emotionallydevastated, Durkheim collapsed of a stroke in Paris in 1917.[] He was buried at the Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris.

Marcel Mauss, a notable social anthropologist of the pre-war era, was his nephew.[]

Durkheim's thought

Sociology

Outline

Theory History

Positivism Antipositivism Functionalism Conflict theories Middle-range Mathematical Critical theory Socialization Structure and agency

Research methods

Quantitative Qualitative Historical Computational Ethnographic Network-analytic

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Topics Subfields

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Throughout his career, Durkheim was concerned primarily with three goals. First, to establish sociology as a newacademic discipline.[] Second, to analyze how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in the modernera, when things such as shared religious and ethnic background could no longer be assumed; to that end he wrotemuch about the effect of laws, religion, education and similar forces on society and social integration.[][] Lastly,Durkheim was concerned with the practical implications of scientific knowledge.[] The importance of socialintegration is expressed throughout Durkheim's work:

For if society lacks the unity that derives from the fact that the relationships between its parts are exactlyregulated, that unity resulting from the harmonious articulation of its various functions assured by effectivediscipline and if, in addition, society lacks the unity based upon the commitment of men's wills to a commonobjective, then it is no more than a pile of sand that the least jolt or the slightest puff will suffice to scatter.mile Durkheim[]

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InspirationsEarly on, during his university studies at the Ecole, Durkheim was influenced by two neo-Kantian scholars, CharlesBernard Renouvier and mile Boutroux.[] The principles Durkheim absorbed from them included rationalism,scientific study of morality, anti-utilitarianism and secular education.[] His methodology was influenced by NumaDenis Fustel de Coulanges, a supporter of the scientific method.[]

A fundamental influence on Durkheim's thought was the sociological positivism of Auguste Comte, who effectivelysought to extend and apply the scientific method found in the natural sciences to the social sciences.[] According toComte, a true social science should stress for empirical facts, as well as induce general scientific laws from therelationship among these facts. There were many points on which Durkheim agreed with the positivist thesis. First,he accepted that the study of society was to be founded on an examination of facts. Second, like Comte, heacknowledged that the only valid guide to objective knowledge was the scientific method. Third, he agreed withComte that the social sciences could become scientific only when they were stripped of their metaphysicalabstractions and philosophical speculation.[6] At the same time, Durkheim believed that Comte was still toophilosophical in his outlook.[]

A second influence on Durkheim's view of society beyond Comte's positivism was the epistemological outlookcalled social realism. Although he never explicitly exposed it, Durkheim adopted a realist perspective in order todemonstrate the existence of social realities outside the individual and to show that these realities existed in the formof the objective relations of society.[7] As an epistemology of science, realism can be defined as a perspective whichtakes as its central point of departure the view that external social realities exist in the outer world and that theserealities are independent of the individual's perception of them. This view opposes other predominant philosophicalperspectives such as empiricism and positivism. Empiricists such as David Hume had argued that all realities in theoutside world are products of human sense perception. According to empiricists, all realities are thus merelyperceived: they do not exist independently of our perceptions, and have no causal power in themselves.[7] Comte'spositivism went a step further by claiming that scientific laws could be deduced from empirical observations. Goingbeyond this, Durkheim claimed that sociology would not only discover "apparent" laws, but would be able todiscover the inherent nature of society.Scholars also debate the exact influence of Jewish thought on Durkheim's work. The answer remains uncertain; somescholars have argued that Durkheim's thought is a form of secularized Jewish thought,[8][9] while others argue thatproving the existence of a direct influence of Jewish thought on Durkheim's achievements is difficult orimpossible.[10]

Establishing sociologyDurkheim authored some of the most programmatic statements on what sociology is and how it should be practiced.[]

His concern was to establish sociology as a science.[] Arguing for a place for sociology among other sciences hewrote:

Sociology is, then, not an auxiliary of any other science; it is itself a distinct and autonomous science.mile Durkheim[]

To give sociology a place in the academic world and to ensure that it is a legitimate science, it must have an objectthat is clear and distinct from philosophy or psychology, and its own methodology.[] He argued:

There is in every society a certain group of phenomena which may be differentiated from ....those studied bythe other natural sciences.mile Durkheim[11]

A fundamental aim of sociology is to discover structural "social facts".[][12]

Establishment of sociology as an independent, recognized academic discipline is amongst Durkheim's largest and most lasting legacies.[] Within sociology, his work has significantly influenced structuralism or structural

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functionalism.[][] Scholars inspired by Durkheim include Marcel Mauss, Maurice Halbwachs, Clestin Bougl,Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, Talcott Parsons, Robert K. Merton, Jean Piaget, Claude Lvi-Strauss, Ferdinand deSaussure, Michel Foucault, Clifford Geertz, Peter Berger, Robert Bellah, social reformer Patrick Hunout and others.[]

Methodology

Cover of the French edition of The Rules of theSociological Method (1919)

In his Rules of the Sociological Method (1895), Durkheim expressedhis will to establish a method that would guarantee sociology's trulyscientific character. One of the questions raised by the author concernsthe objectivity of the sociologist: how may one study an object that,from the very beginning, conditions and relates to the observer?According to Durkheim, observation must be as impartial andimpersonal as possible, even though a "perfectly objective observation"in this sense may never be attained. A social fact must always bestudied according to its relation with other social facts, never accordingto the individual who studies it. Sociology should therefore privilegecomparison rather than the study of singular independent facts.[13]

It has been noted, at times with disapproval and amazement by manysocial scientists, that Durkheim traveled little and that, like manyFrench scholars of the time and the notable British anthropologist SirJames Frazer, he never undertook any fieldwork. The vast informationDurkheim studied on the aboriginal tribes of Australia and NewGuinea and on the Inuit was all collected by other anthropologists,travelers, or missionaries.[14]

This was not due to provincialism or lack of attention to the concrete.Durkheim did not intend to make venturesome and dogmaticgeneralizations while disregarding empirical observation. He did, however, maintain that concrete observation inremote parts of the world does not always lead to illuminating views on the past or even on the present. For him,facts had no intellectual meaning unless they were grouped into types and laws. He claimed repeatedly that it is froma construction erected on the inner nature of the real that knowledge of concrete reality is obtained, knowledge notperceived by observation of the facts from the outside. He thus constructed concepts such as the sacred and totemismexactly in the same way that Karl Marx developed the concept of class.[14]

Durkheim sought to create one of the first rigorous scientific approaches to social phenomena. Along with HerbertSpencer, he was one of the first people to explain the existence and quality of different parts of a society by referenceto what function they served in maintaining the quotidian (i.e. by how they make society "work"). He also agreedwith his organic analogy, comparing society to a living organism.[] Thus his work is sometimes seen as a precursorto functionalism.[][15][16] Durkheim also insisted that society was more than the sum of its parts.[17]

Unlike his contemporaries Ferdinand Tnnies and Max Weber, he focused not on what motivates the actions ofindividuals (an approach associated with methodological individualism), but rather on the study of social facts.

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Social factsA social fact is every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint;or again, every way of acting which is general throughout a given society, while at the same time existing inits own right independent of its individual manifestations.mile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method[12]

Durkheim's work revolved around the study of social facts, a term he coined to describe phenomena that have anexistence in and of themselves, are not bound to the actions of individuals, but have a coercive influence uponthem.[][] Durkheim argued that social facts have, sui generis, an independent existence greater and more objectivethan the actions of the individuals that compose society.[] Only such social facts can explain the observed socialphenomena.[] Being exterior to the individual person, social facts may thus also exercise coercive power on thevarious people composing society, as it can sometimes be observed in the case of formal laws and regulations, butalso in situations implying the presence of informal rules, such as religious rituals or family norms.[18] Unlike thefacts studied in natural sciences, a "social" fact thus refers to a specific category of phenomena:

The determining cause of a social fact must be sought among the antecedent social facts and not among thestates of the individual consciousness.mile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method[12]

Such social facts are endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they may control individualbehaviors.[18] According to Durkheim, these phenomena cannot be reduced to biological or psychologicalgrounds.[19] Social facts can be material (physical objects) or immaterial (meanings, sentiments, etc.).[] The lattercannot be seen or touched, but they are external and coercive, and as such, they become real, gain "facticity".[]

Physical objects can represent both material and immaterial social facts; for example a flag is a physical social factthat often has various immaterial social facts (the meaning and importance of the flag) attached to it.[]

Many social facts, however, have no material form.[] Even the most "individualistic" or "subjective" phenomena,such as love, freedom or suicide, would be regarded by Durkheim as objective social facts.[] Individuals composingsociety do not directly cause suicide: suicide, as a social fact, exists independently in society, and is caused by othersocial facts (such as rules governing behavior and group attachment), whether an individual likes it or not.[][]

Whether a person "leaves" a society does not change anything to the fact that this society will still contain suicides.Suicide, like other immaterial social facts, exists independently of the will of an individual, cannot be eliminated,and is as influential - coercive - as physical laws such as gravity.[] Sociology's task thus consists of discovering thequalities and characteristics of such social facts, which can be discovered through a quantitative or experimentalapproach (Durkheim extensively relied on statistics).[20]

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Society, collective consciousness and culture

Cover of the French edition of the Division ofLabor in Society.

Regarding the society itself, like social institutions in general,Durkheim saw it as a set of social facts.[][] Even more than "whatsociety is", Durkheim was interested in answering "how is a societycreated" and "what holds a society together". In his Division of Laborin Society, Durkheim attempted to answer the question of what holdsthe society together.[] He assumes that humans are inherently egoistic,but norms, beliefs and values (collective consciousness) form themoral basis of the society, resulting in social integration.[][] Collectiveconsciousness is of key importance to the society, its requisite functionwithout which the society cannot survive.[] Collective consciousnessproduces the society and holds it together, and at the same timeindividuals produce collective consciousness through theirinteractions.[][] Through collective consciousness human beingsbecome aware of one another as social beings, not just animals.[]

The totality of beliefs and sentiments common to the averagemembers of a society forms a determinate system with a life ofits own. It can be termed the collective or commonconsciousness.Emile Durkheim[]

In particular, the emotional part of the collective consciousnessoverrides our egoism: as we are emotionally bound to culture, we act socially because we recognize it is theresponsible, moral way to act.[] A key to forming society is social interaction, and Durkheim believes that humanbeings, when in a group, will inevitably act in such a way that a society is formed.[]

In this argument, Durkheim was acknowledged by a pet name Aurangzeb. The importance of another key social fact- the culture.[] Groups, when interacting, create their own culture and attach powerful emotions to it.[] He was one ofthe first scholars to consider the question of culture so intensely.[] Durkheim was interested in cultural diversity, andhow the existence of diversity nonetheless fails to destroy a society.[] To that, Durkheim answered that any apparentcultural diversity is overridden by a larger, common, and more generalized cultural system, and the law.[][]

In a socioevolutionary approach, Durkheim described the evolution of societies from mechanical solidarity toorganic solidarity (one rising from mutual need).[][][21][] As the societies become more complex, evolving frommechanical to organic solidarity, the division of labor is counteracting and replacing collective consciousness.[][] Inthe simpler societies, people are connected to others due to personal ties and traditions; in the larger, modern societythey are connected due to increased reliance on others with regard to them performing their specialized tasks neededfor the modern, highly complex society to survive.[] In mechanical solidarity, people are self-sufficient, there is littleintegration and thus there is the need for use of force and repression to keep society together.[21] Also, in suchsocieties, people have much fewer options in life.[] In organic solidarity, people are much more integrated andinterdependent and specialisation and cooperation is extensive.[21] Progress from mechanical to organic solidarity isbased first on population growth and increasing population density, second on increasing "morality density"(development of more complex social interactions) and thirdly, on the increasing specialisation in workplace.[21] Oneof the ways mechanical and organic societies differ is the function of law: in mechanical society the law is focusedon its punitive aspect, and aims to reinforce the cohesion of the community, often by making the punishment publicand extreme; whereas in the organic society the law focuses on repairing the damage done and is more focused onindividuals than the community.[][]

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One of the main features of the modern, organic society is the importance, sacredness even, given to the concept -social fact - of the individual.[] The individual, rather than the collective, becomes the focus of rights andresponsibilities, the center of public and private rituals holding the society together - a function once performed bythe religion.[] To stress the importance of this concept, Durkheim talked of the "cult of the individual":

Thus very far from there being the antagonism between the individual and society which is often claimed,moral individualism, the cult of the individual, is in fact the product of the society itself. It is the society thatinstituted it and made of man the god whose servant it is.mile Durkheim[]

Durkheim saw the population density and growth as key factors in the evolution of the societies and advent ofmodernity.[][] As the number of people in a given area increase, so does the number of interactions, and the societybecomes more complex.[] Growing competition between the more numerous people also leads to further division oflabor.[] In time, the importance of the state, the law and the individual increases, while that of the religion and moralsolidarity decreases.[]

In another example of evolution of culture, Durkheim pointed to fashion, although in this case he noted a morecyclical phenomenon.[] According to Durkheim, fashion serves to differentiate between lower classes and upperclasses, but because lower classes want to look like the upper classes, they will eventually adapt the upper classfashion, depreciating it, and forcing the upper class to adopt a new fashion.[]

Social pathologies and crimeAs the society, Durkheim noted there are several possible pathologies that could lead to a breakdown of socialintegration and disintegration of the society: the two most important ones are anomie and forced division of labor;lesser ones include the lack of coordination and suicide.[][] By anomie Durkheim means a state when too rapidpopulation growth reduces the amount of interaction between various groups, which in turn leads a breakdown ofunderstanding (norms, values, and so on).[][][] By forced division of labor Durkheim means a situation where powerholders, driven by their desire for profit (greed), results in people doing the work they are unsuited for.[] Such peopleare unhappy, and their desire to change the system can destabilize the society.[]

Durkheim's views on crime were a departure from conventional notions. He believed that crime is "bound up withthe fundamental conditions of all social life" and serves a social function.[11] He stated that crime implies, "not onlythat the way remains open to necessary changes but that in certain cases it directly prepares these changes."[11]

Examining the trial of Socrates, he argues that "his crime, namely, the independence of his thought, rendered aservice not only to humanity but to his country" as "it served to prepare a new morality and faith that the Atheniansneeded".[11] As such, his crime "was a useful prelude to reforms".[11] In this sense, he saw crime as being able torelease certain social tensions and so have a cleansing or purging effect in society. He further stated that "theauthority which the moral conscience enjoys must not be excessive; otherwise, no-one would dare to criticize it, andit would too easily congeal into an immutable form. To make progress, individual originality must be able to expressitself...[even] the originality of the criminal... shall also be possible".[11]

Suicide

In Suicide (1897), Durkheim explores the differing suicide rates among Protestants and Catholics, arguing thatstronger social control among Catholics results in lower suicide rates. According to Durkheim, Catholic society hasnormal levels of integration while Protestant society has low levels. Overall, Durkheim treated suicide as a socialfact, explaining variations in its rate on a macro level, considering society-scale phenomena such as lack ofconnections between people (group attachment) and lack of regulations of behavior, rather than individuals' feelingsand motivations.[][]

This study has been extensively discussed by later scholars and several major criticisms have emerged. First, Durkheim took most of his data from earlier researchers, notably Adolph Wagner and Henry Morselli,[22] who were

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much more careful in generalizing from their own data. Second, later researchers found that the ProtestantCatholicdifferences in suicide seemed to be limited to German-speaking Europe and thus may always have been the spuriousreflection of other factors.[23] Durkheim's study of suicide has been criticized as an example of the logical errortermed the ecological fallacy.[24][25] However, diverging views have contested whether Durkheim's work reallycontained an ecological fallacy.[26] More recent authors such as Berk (2006) have also questioned the micro-macrorelations underlying Durkheim's work.[27] Some, such as Inkeles (1959),[28] Johnson (1965)[29] and Gibbs (1968),[30]

have claimed that Durkheim's only intent was to explain suicide sociologically within a holistic perspective,emphasizing that "he intended his theory to explain variation among social environments in the incidence of suicide,not the suicides of particular individuals."[31]

Despite its limitations, Durkheim's work on suicide has influenced proponents of control theory, and is oftenmentioned as a classic sociological study. The book pioneered modern social research and served to distinguishsocial science from psychology and political philosophy.[32]

ReligionIn The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, Durkheims first purpose was to identify the social origin andfunction of religion as he felt that religion was a source of camaraderie and solidarity.[] His second purpose was toidentify links between certain religions in different cultures, finding a common denominator. He wanted tounderstand the empirical, social aspect of religion that is common to all religions and goes beyond the concepts ofspirituality and God.[]

Durkheim defined religion asA religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, i.e., things set apart andforbidden--beliefs and practices which unite in one single moral community called a Church, all those whoadhere to them.mile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, Book 1, Ch. 1[]

In this definition, Durkheim avoids references to supernatural or God.[] Durkheim argued that the concept ofsupernatural is relatively new, tied to the development of science and separation of supernaturalthat which cannotbe rationally explainedfrom natural, that which can.[] Thus, according to Durkheim, for early humans, everythingwas supernatural.[] Similarly, he points out that religions which give little importance to the concept of god exist,such as Buddhism, where the Four Noble Truths is much more important than any individual deity.[] With that,Durkheim argues, we are left with the following three concepts: the sacred (the ideas that cannot be properlyexplained, inspire awe and are considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion), the beliefs and practices (whichcreate highly emotional statecollective effervescenceand invest symbols with sacred importance), and the moralcommunity (a group of people sharing a common moral philosophy).[][][][] Out of those three concepts, Durkheimfocused on the sacred, noting that it is at the very core of a religion.[] He defined sacred things as:

...simply collective ideals that have fixed themselves on material objects... they are only collective forceshypostasized, that is to say, moral forces; they are made up of the ideas and sentiments awakened in us by thespectacle of society, and not of sensations coming from the physical world.mile Durkheim[]

Durkheim saw religion as the most fundamental social institution of humankind, and one that gave rise to other social forms.[][] It was the religion that gave humanity the strongest sense of collective consciousness.[] Durkheim saw the religion as a force that emerged in the early hunter and gatherer societies, as the emotions collective effervescence run high in the growing groups, forcing them to act in a new ways, and giving them a sense of some hidden force driving them.[] Over time, as emotions became symbolized and interactions ritualized, religion became more organized, giving a rise to the division between the sacred and the profane.[] However, Durkheim also believed that religion was becoming less important, as it was being gradually superseded by science and the cult of an

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individual.[][]

Thus there is something eternal in religion that is destined to outlive the succession of particular symbols inwhich religious thought has clothed itself.mile Durkheim[]

However, even if the religion was losing its importance for Durkheim, it still laid the foundation of modern societyand the interactions that governed it.[] And despite the advent of alternative forces, Durkheim argued that noreplacement for the force of religion had yet been created,. He expressed his doubt about modernity, seeing themodern times as "a period of transition and moral mediocrity".[]

Durkheim also argued that our primary categories for understanding the world have their origins in religion.[] It isreligion, Durkheim writes, that gave rise to most if not all other social constructs, including the larger society.[]

Durkheim argued that categories are produced by the society, and thus are collective creations.[] Thus as peoplecreate societies, they also create categories, but at the same time, they do so unconsciously, and the categories areprior to any individual's experience.[] In this way Durkheim attempted to bridge the divide between seeing categoriesas constructed out of human experience and as logically prior to that experience.[] Our understanding of the world isshaped by social facts; for example the notion of time is defined by being measured through a calendar, which in turnwas created to allow us to keep track of our social gatherings and rituals; those in turn on their most basic leveloriginated from religion.[] In the end, even the most logical and rational pursuit of science can trace its origins toreligion.[] Durkheim states that, "Religion gave birth to all that is essential in the society.[]

In his work, Durkheim focused on totemism, the religion of the aboriginal Australians and Native Americans.[][]

Durkheim saw totemism as the most ancient religion, and focused on it as he believed its simplicity would ease thediscussion of the essential elements of religion.[][]

Durkheims work on religion was heavily criticized on both empirical and theoretical grounds by specialists in thefield. The most devastating critique came from Durkheims contemporary, Arnold van Gennep, an expert on religionand ritual, and also on Australian belief systems. Van Gennep plainly stated that Durkheims views of primitivepeoples and simple societies were entirely erroneous. Van Gennep further argued that Durkheim demonstrated alack of critical stance towards his sources, collected by traders and priests, naively accepting their veracity, and thatDurkheim interpreted freely from dubious data. At the conceptual level, van Gennep pointed out Durkheimstendency to press ethnography into a prefabricated theoretical scheme.[]

DeathDurkheim died in Paris, France on the 15th November 1917. He is buried in the Cimetire de Montparnasse inParis.[33]

Influences and LegacyHis description of collective consciousness deeply influenced Ziya Gokalp's, the founding father of Turkishsociology, Turkish nationalism.[34]

Selected works Montesquieu's contributions to the formation of social science (1892) The Division of Labour in Society (1893) The Rules of Sociological Method (1895) On the Normality of Crime (1895) Suicide (1897) The Prohibition of Incest and its Origins (1897), published in L'Anne Sociologique, vol. 1, pp.170

mile Durkheim 13

Sociology and its Scientific Domain (1900), translation of an Italian text entitled "La sociologia e il suo dominioscientifico"

The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912) Who Wanted War? (1914), in collaboration with Ernest Denis Germany Above All (1915)Published posthumously:

Education and Sociology (1922) Sociology and Philosophy (1924) Moral Education (1925) Socialism (1928) Pragmatism and Sociology (1955)

References[1] Vido Ina - Claude Levi Strauss : 3me partie, Archives du XXme sicle - 23/06/1974 (http:/ / www. ina. fr/ art-et-culture/ litterature/ video/

CPF86632054/ claude-levi-strauss-3eme-partie. fr. html)[2] Kim, Sung Ho (2007). "Max Weber". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (August 24, 2007 entry) http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/

weber/ (Retrieved 17-02-2010)[3][3] Durkheim, mile. "The Rules of Sociological Method.", Preface to the Second Edition, trans. W.D.Halls, The Free Press, 1982, ISBN

978-0-02-907940-9, p.45.[4][4] Simpson, George (Trans.) in Durkheim, Emile "The Division of Labour in Society" The Free Press, New York, 1993. p. ix[5] Jones, Robert Alun and Rand J. Spiro. "Contextualization, cognitive flexibility, and hypertext: the convergence of interpretive theory,

cognitive psychology, and advanced information technologies." in Susan Leigh Star (ed.) 1995. The Cultures of Computing. SociologicalReview Monograph Series, Google Print p. 149 (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?hl=en& lr=& id=vM5MgiPPlgcC& oi=fnd& pg=PA148)

[6] Morrison, Ken (2006): Marx, Durkheim, Weber: formations of modern social thought. Second edition. SAGE, p. 151.[7][7] Morrison, Ken (2006), p. 152.[8] Strenski, Ivan. 1997. Durkheim and the Jews of France. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Google Print pp. 1-2 (http:/ / books. google.

ca/ books?id=nyneB7F0m0sC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_navlinks_s)[9] "While Durkheim did not become a Rabbi, he may have transformed his father's philosophical and moral concerns into something new, his

version of sociology." Metrovi, Stjepan Gabriel (1993). mile Durkheim and the reformation of sociology. Rowman & Littlefield, GooglePrint, p. 37 (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=lqGUxDs3K_UC& pg=PA37#v=onepage& q=& f=false)

[10] Pickering, W. S. F. 2001. "The Enigma of Durkheim's Jewishness", in Critical Assessments of Leading Sociologists. British Centre forDurkheimian Studies, v. 1, Google Print, p. 79 (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=amP-MyZAL-cC& printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s)

[11] Emile Durkheim, Foundations of the Classic Sociological Theory, in[12][12] Durkheim, mile [1895] "The Rules of Sociological Method" 8th edition, trans. Sarah A. Solovay and John M. Mueller, ed. George E. G.

Catlin (1938, 1964 edition), pp. 13.[13] "Durkheim was the first to seriously use the comparative method correctly in the scientific sense" Cf. Collins, Randall. 1975. Conflict

Sociology: Toward an Explanatory Science. N.Y.: Academic Press, p. 529[14] "mile Durkheim." Encyclopdia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 174299/ Emile-Durkheim). 2009.

Encyclopdia Britannica Online. (Retrieved 14-06-2009)[15] Hayward, J.E.S. "Solidarist Syndicalism: Durkheim and DuGuit", Sociological Review, Vol. 8 (1960)[16] Thompson, Kenneth. 2002. Emile Durkheim. Routledge.[17] "Science cannot describe individuals, but only types. If human societies cannot be classified, they must remain inaccessible to scientific

description." Cf. Durkheim, mile [1892] "Montesquieu's Contribution to the Rise of Social Science" in Montesquieu and Rousseau.Forerunners of Sociology, trans. Ralph Manheim (1960), p.9

[18] Martin, Michael and Lee C. McIntyre. 1994. Readings in the Philosophy of Social Science. Boston: MIT press, Google Print p. 433 (http:/ /books. google. ca/ books?id=oUx60TFkLxoC)

[19] Martin, Michael and Lee C. McIntyre. 1994. Readings in the Philosophy of Social Science. Boston: MIT press, Google Print p. 434 (http:/ /books. google. ca/ books?id=oUx60TFkLxoC)

[20] "Suicide [...] is indeed the paradigm case of Durkheim's positivism: it remains the exemplar of the sociological application of statistics."Hassard, John. 1995. Sociology and Organization Theory: Positivism, Paradigms and Postmodernity. Cambridge University Press (ISBN0-521-48458-8) Google Print p. 15 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=en& lr=& id=EjI6Rd-NreYC& oi=fnd& pg=PP13& dq=Durkheim+suicide+ sociological+ positivism& ots=764qjcztaG& sig=YOVkvTMvWDpq2FIYgf0v7TR_JFw#PPA15,M1)

[21] Sztompka, Piotr, Socjologia, Znak, 2002, ISBN 83-240-0218-9, p.500

mile Durkheim 14

[22] Stark, Rodney and William Sims Bainbridge. 1996. Religion, Deviance and Social Control. Routledge, Google Print p. 32 (http:/ / books.google. ca/ books?id=lm0DLM_T8zsC& pg=PA32)

[23] Pope, Whitney, and Nick Danigelis. 1981. "Sociology's One Law," Social Forces 60:496-514.[24] Freedman, David A. 2002. The Ecological Fallacy. University of California. (http:/ / www. stat. berkeley. edu/ ~census/ ecofall. txt)[25] H. C. Selvin. 1965. "Durkheim's Suicide:Further Thoughts on a Methodological Classic", in R. A. Nisbet (ed.) mile Durkheim pp. 113-136[26] Van Poppel, Frans, and Lincoln H. Day. "A Test of Durkheim's Theory of Suicide--Without Committing the Ecological Fallacy". American

Sociological Review, Vol. 61, No. 3 (Jun., 1996), p. 500[27] Berk, Bernard B. "Macro-Micro Relationships in Durkheim's Analysis of Egoistic Suicide". Sociological Theory, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Mar.,

2006), pp. 78-79[28] Cf. Inkeles, A. 1959. "Personality and Social Structure." pp. 249-76 in Sociological Today, edited by R. K. Merton, L. Broom, and L. S.

Cottrell. New York: Basic Books.[29] Cf. Johnson, B. D. 1965. "Durkheim's One Cause of Suicide." American Sociological Review, 30:875-86[30] Cf. Gibbs, J. P. and W. T. Martin. 1958. "A Theory of Status Integration and Its Relationship to Suicide." American Sociological, Review

23:14-147.[31] Berk, Bernard B. "Macro-Micro Relationships in Durkheim's Analysis of Egoistic Suicide". Sociological Theory, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Mar.,

2006), p. 60[32] Gianfranco Poggi (2000). Durkheim. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chapter 1.[34] (http:/ / iss. sagepub. com/ content/ 28/ 3/ 335. short), Turkay Salim Nefes, 'Ziya Gkalps adaptation of Emile Durkheims sociology in his

formulation of the modern Turkish nation' International Sociology May 2013 vol. 28 no. 3 335-350.

Further reading Bellah, Robert N. (ed.) (1973). Emile Durkheim: On Morality and Society, Selected Writings. Chicago: The

University of Chicago Press (ISBN 978-0-226-17336-8). Cotterrell, Roger (1999). Emile Durkheim: Law in a Moral Domain. Edinburgh University Press / Stanford

University Press (ISBN 0-8047-3808-4, ISBN 978-0-8047-3808-8). Cotterrell, Roger (ed.) (2010). Emile Durkheim: Justice, Morality and Politics. Ashgate (ISBN

978-0-7546-2711-1). Douglas, Jack D. (1973). The Social Meanings of Suicide. Princeton University Press (ISBN 978-0-691-02812-5). Eitzen, Stanley D. and Maxine Baca Zinn (1997). Social Problems (11th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and

Bacon (ISBN 0-205-54796-6). Giddens, Anthony (ed.) (1972). Emile Durkheim: Selected Writings. London: Cambridge University Press (ISBN

0-521-09712-6, ISBN 978-0-521-09712-3). Giddens, Anthony (ed.) (1986). Durkheim on Politics and the State. Cambridge: Polity Press (ISBN

0-7456-0131-6). Henslin, James M. (1996). Essentials of Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn

and Bacon (ISBN 0-205-17480-9, ISBN 978-0-205-17480-5). Jones, Susan Stedman (2001). Durkheim Reconsidered. Polity (ISBN 0-7456-1616-X, ISBN 978-0-7456-1616-2). Lemert, Charles (2006). Durkheim's Ghosts: Cultural Logics and Social Things. Cambridge University Press

(ISBN 0-521-84266-2, ISBN 978-0-521-84266-2). Lockwood, David (1992). Solidarity and Schism: "The Problem of Disorder" in Durkheimian and Marxist

Sociology. Oxford: Clarendon Press (ISBN 0-19-827717-2, ISBN 978-0-19-827717-0). Macionis, John J (1991). Sociology (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN

0-13-820358-X. Lukes, Steven (1985). Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work, a Historical and Critical Study. Stanford University

Press (ISBN 0-8047-1283-2, ISBN 978-0-8047-1283-5). Mestrovic, Stjepan (1988). Emile Durkheim and the Reformation of Sociology. Rowan & Littlefield. (ISBN

0-8476-7867-9) Osipova, Elena (1989). "Emile Durkheims Sociology" (http:/ / su-ltd. mylivepage. ru/ file/ 2715/

6547_Kon_History_of_Classical_Sociology. zip) (DOC, DjVu). In Igor Kon (ed.). A History of ClassicalSociology. Translated by H. Campbell Creighton, M.A. (Oxon). Moscow: Progress Publishers. pp.206254.

Pickering, W. S. F. (2000). Durkheim and Representations, Routledge (ISBN 0-415-19090-8).

mile Durkheim 15

Pickering, W. S. F. (ed.) (1979). Durkheim: Essays on Morals and Education, Routledge & Kegan Paul (ISBN0-7100-0321-8).

Pickering, W. S. F. (ed.) (1975). Durkheim on Religion, Routledge & Kegan Paul (ISBN 0-7100-8108-1). Siegel, Larry J (2007). Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies (7th ed.) Wadsworth/Thomson Learning

(ISBN 0-495-00572-X, ISBN 978-0-495-00572-8). Tekiner, Deniz (2002). "German Idealist Foundations of Durkheim's Sociology and Teleology of Knowledge",

Theory and Science, III, 1, Online publication (http:/ / theoryandscience. icaap. org/ content/ vol003. 001/ tekiner.html).

Thompson, Kenneth (2002). Emile Durkheim (2nd ed.) Routledge (ISBN 0-415-28530-5, ISBN978-0-415-28530-8).

External links mile Durkheim (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Society/ Philosophy/ Philosophers/ D/ Durkheim,_mile/ / ) at the

Open Directory Project L'Ecoles des Hautes Etudes Internationales et Poltiques HEI-HEP (http:/ / www. hei-hep. com/ ) The Durkheim pages (University of Chicago) (http:/ / durkheim. uchicago. edu/ ) DD - Digital Durkheim (http:/ / digitaldurkheim. hypotheses. org/ ) Bibliography on Durkheim (McMaster University) (http:/ / socserv. mcmaster. ca/ econ/ ugcm/ 3ll3/ durkheim/

index. html) Annotated bibliography on Durkheim and Religion (University of North Carolina) (http:/ / www. unc. edu/

~elliott/ durkheim. html) Review material for studying mile Durkheim (http:/ / www. bolenderinitiatives. com/ sociology/

emile-durkheim-1858-1917) Institut Marcel Mauss l'EHESS (http:/ / imm. ehess. fr/ ) Durkheim sur l'Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ durkheim/ ) (Extensive article on

Durkheim's not well-known philosophical contributions)

Article Sources and Contributors 16

Article Sources and Contributorsmile Durkheim Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=565011431 Contributors: 1984GO, AXRL, Achowat, Addshore, AdjustShift, Adrian.benko, Aeusoes1, Ahchecker,Alansohn, Ale jrb, Alex Golub, All Hallow's Wraith, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Altes, Amire80, Andre Engels, Andrew Norman, Andycjp, Anjesh, Anna Lincoln, Anthony, Antigrandiose,Apus, Arnie587, Aronlee90, Arthena, Askhaiz, Atif.t2, Attilios, Aude, Avoided, BMF81, BTLizard, Banakar, Bassbonerocks, Bbatsell, Bearcat, Bender235, Betterusername, Bill Chadwell, Billcz, Black Falcon, Blainster, Bobo192, Brad7777, BrendelSignature, Bruceanthro, Bryan Derksen, CBM, CQJ, CWii, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cantiorix, Capricorn42, Carl Logan, Cetheriel,Charles Matthews, Chimin 07, Christofurio, Cookiehead, Cosmic Latte, Caquia, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DASonnenfeld, DarwinPeacock, Darwinek, David91, Dbfirs, Deb, Deipnosophista,Delldot, Deniz22, Diannaa, Dimadick, Diomedea Exulans, DocWatson42, Dowcet, Drumfan IT, Dv82matt, Easyer, Eclecticology, Editor2020, Edward, ElKevbo, Erianna, Eric-Wester, Esperant,Euchiasmus, Everyking, Excirial, Frieda, Gabbe, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Garion96, Gdarin, Ggraham96, Gilliam, Ginkgo100, Giorgi Balakhadze, Good Olfactory,Gopher65, Gregbard, Grenavitar, Gudshead, Haham hanuka, Harthacnut, Hazel77, Hazhk, HexaChord, Homagetocatalonia, Howabout1, IW.HG, Igodard, Imsu4s, Irglobe3, Islescape, It Is MeHere, JDDJS, JForget, JYOuyang, James086, Jboy, Jclemens, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Jim1138, JimFarm, Jimmy jinx, Joarku, John, John of Reading, Jon Awbrey, Jonik, Joriki, Joseph Solis inAustralia, Josh Cherry, Joygerhardt, Jusdafax, JustAGal, Kate, Keilana, Keith D, Kelner, Klehti, Kmcfarla, Koavf, Korg, KoshVorlon, Kpjas, Ktoonen, L Kensington, LAWinans, LCecere,Larsivi, Liface, Little Mountain 5, Littlealien182, Lockley, LonelyMarble, Lucidish, LuckyWizard, Lukehunt, Luna Santin, LutP, Lutterworth Press, Lvms90, M-le-mot-dit, M3taphysical,MER-C, Mackan79, Magioladitis, Mahanga, Malkin, Mani1, Marcelo Reis, MarkS, Masterpiece2000, Matthew Proctor, Mattisse, Maunus, Mc288, McSly, Meclee, Michel.Najm, Mifter,Mikemo007, MikeyMouse10, Miriska, Modify, Mohsens, Monegasque, Monkey Bounce, Mpgviolist, MrChupon, Mrw12, Mtevfrog, Mukhtar1, Nagelfar, Narchy, Narkin, Nathansz, NawlinWiki,Ndaco, Neelix, Nick Number, Nmarzouk, Nolomotm, Noommos, Off2riorob, Ohconfucius, Olivier, Omnipaedista, Opirnia, Ormers, Orwellini, Osmanja, Oswaldo alvizar bauelos, Owen,Panoramix, Parkjunwung, Paulbirch, Pedant17, PelleSmith, Peter morrell, Philip Trueman, Phoebe13, Piotrus, Pit, Pmjones, PranksterTurtle, Princessshah, ProfAncious, Profoss, Proverb,Pruneau, Pshopboy, Quendus, Quite, R'n'B, RCS, RaseaC, Ray Chason, Rbmcotterrell, Red Thrush, Reddi, Redound, Reswik, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Richpolo, Rigadoun, Rindzin, Rjwilmsi,Rkr1991, Rmackenzie, Roland2, Romanm, Rosiestep, RossPatterson, SJP, SMP, Sadi Carnot, Saksham, Sam Hocevar, Sasuke Sarutobi, Sbowers3, Scarian, Schmaus, Schmloof, SebRovera,Serein (renamed because of SUL), SeventhHell, Sfrahm1, Shaded0, Shoeofdeath, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Skittleys, Skyskyskyskyskysky, Slon02, Slopigyo, Sluzzelin, Soetermans,Solus ipse Inc., Soobrickay, Sp0, Spartakus123, Stay cool, Stefan Kruithof, Stephen Gilbert, Stephensuleeman, Steven18388, Stevenmitchell, Student.mckinney, Studymore, Stunetii,SummerWithMorons, Sunray, SuperSmurph, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TTwist, Tacita620, Taief.shahed, TakuyaMurata, Tannin, Terence, TexasAndroid, The wub, Theresa knott, Thi, Tiderolls, TimBentley, Timeineurope, Toezar, Tom, Tom Lougheed, Tom Morris, Tomsega, TonyTheTiger, Tpbradbury, Tyler, Undolph, Unyoyega, Vanished188, Varlokkur, Vincej, WLGades,Wayward, Welsh, Werdnawerdna, WhisperToMe, Wikiman1298, Wilfried Derksen, Wmahan, Wolfdog, Woohookitty, Wtmitchell, Wynnj26, Xcruz23x, Yamaguchi , Yo lenin, Yo lenin1,Zidonuke, Zzuuzz, pa, 568 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Emile_Durkheim.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Chico, Dittaeva, Gvf, Mu, P. S. Burton, Piotrus,Tets, Thierry Caro, Tony Rotondas, Vindicator, Wouterhagens, 3 anonymous editsFile:Emile Durkheim, Le Socialisme maitrier.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emile_Durkheim,_Le_Socialisme_maitrier.jpg License: GNU Free DocumentationLicense Contributors: heurtelionsFile:Tomba emile durkheim.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tomba_emile_durkheim.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: AngeloLeonardiImage:SNA segment.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SNA_segment.png License: GNU General Public License Contributors: Screenshot taken byUser:DarwinPeacockFile:The Rules of the Sociological Method.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Rules_of_the_Sociological_Method.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:UnknownFile:Emile Durkheim, Division du travail social maitrier.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emile_Durkheim,_Division_du_travail_social_maitrier.jpg License:Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: heurtelions

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mile DurkheimBiographyChildhood and educationAcademic career

Durkheim's thoughtInspirationsEstablishing sociologyMethodologySocial factsSociety, collective consciousness and cultureSocial pathologies and crimeSuicide

Religion

DeathInfluences and LegacySelected worksReferencesFurther readingExternal links

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