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MADHYA PRADESHRAJYA SHIKSHA KENDRA, BHOPAL

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YEAR 2012 Rs.

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DirectionM.K. Singh,

Commissioner Rajya Siksha Kendra, BhopalCo-ordination

Shakuntala ShrivastavCo-ordinator, Text Books Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal

Subject Co-ordinatorDr. Sadhna Singh

Academic Consultant, Rajya Siksha Kendra, BhopalWriters

�Dr. Anita Sharma, Lect., Govt. Boys Higher Secondary School, Station Area, Bhopal�Dr. Ashok Tyagi, Asstt. Proff., M.L.B., Govt. Excellence College, Gwalior �Kamal Bhardwaj,Asstt. Prof., P.G. Excellence College, Ambah, Morena � Dr. Mahaveer Prasad Modi, Asstt.Prof. Govt. College, Morena � Dr. Manoj Awasthi, Asstt. Prof. Madhav College, Gwalior� Dr. Neeraj Goyal, Asstt. Prof. Govt. P.G. College, Morena � Dr. Rajendra Saxena, Rtd.,Vice Principal, DIET, Ujjain � Ramesh Chandra Tripathi, Rtd. Gwalior � Shakun Dhoot,Lect., KNG, Bhopal � S.S. Patel, Sr. Lecuturer, DIET, Pachmari � Shushma Dixit, Lect., BoysHigher Secondary School, Bairagrah � Shushma Saran, Govt. Girls K.N.H.S., Bhopal

Moderation� Dr. Anjali Jain, Asstt. Prof., S.N.K. P.G. Autonomous College, Bhopal � Dr. A.L. Naik,Retd., Deputy Commissoner, Deptt. of Tribal Welfare � Dr. Rajeshwari Duby, Asstt. Prof.,S.N.K., P.G. Autonomous College, Bhopal � Dr. Sadhna Singh R.S.K. � Dr. R.P. SinghRetd., Principal, DIET, Vidisha �Dr. S.K. Trivedi, Lecturer, Govt. Hamidia College, Bhopal.

Editing� Dr. J.P. Singh, Retd., Proff., Regional Educational Research and Trainng Institute, Bhopal� Dr. M.K. Mathur, Retd., Principal P.G. College, Gwalior � Dr. Nalini Rewadikar, Retd.,Principal, Govt. College, Ujjain, � Dr. S.K. Shukla, H.O.D., Jivaji University, Gwalior

Translators� Jaishree Nair, TGT, Social Science, KV-3, Bhopal � Dr. Rajeshwari Dubey, Astt. Prof.,SNK, PG. College, Bhopal � Dr. Sangeeta Pethiya, TGT, Social Science, DPS, Bhopal� Shushma Saran, Lecturer, Govt. K.N.H.S.S., Bhopal

Mapping & Picturaisation - Vikas Malviya (RSK), Vinay Sapre, Dr. R. Saxena© Government of India copyright Act 2008

� The correct depiction of internal description of maps is the responsibility of publishers.� The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the

appropriate base line.� The interstate boundaries between Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown in this publication are as

interpreted from the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971 but yet to be verified.� The international and coastal boundaries of India with the verified record/main copy certified by survey of India.� The state boundaries between Uttaranchal & Utterpradesh, Bihar & Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh &

Madhyapradesh have not been verified by the Concerned Government .

Composing - Akshar Graphics, Ph.: 2559213

Publicaiton year-2007Reprint-2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012© Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal

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Approved byMadhya Pradesh Textbook Standing Committee

S.No. Name and Address Designation1 Dr. Govind Sharma Chairman

Former Additional Director,Higher Education, Govt. of M.P., Gwalior

2. Mr. Bhagirath Kumrawat MemberEducationist, Bhopal

3. Prof. Sureshwar Sharma MemberFormer Vice Chancellor,Rani Durgawati Vishwavidyalaya, Jabalpur

4. Dr. Manmohan Upadhyaya MemberEducationist and Deputy Chairman,M.P. Sanskrit Board, Bhopal

5. Dr. Umrao Singh Choudhary MemberFormer Vice Chancellor,Devi Ahiliya Unicersity, Indore

6. Prof. Udai Jain MemberFormer Principal, Vaishnav College, Indore

7. Dr. Subhash Gupta MemberDean, Student Welfare, Devi Ahilya University, Indore

8. Dr. Prakash Bartunia MemberAssistant General Manager, IDBI, Bhopal

9. Dr. (Smt.) Binay Rajaram MemberTrustee, Bharat Bhawan (Literature)Professor and Head of the DepartmentShri Satya Sai Women’s College, Bhopal

10. Commissioner Member SecretaryRajya Shiksha Kendra, M.P., Bhopal

11. Commissioner, MemberPublic Instruction, M.P., Bhopal

12. Secretary, MemberBoard of Secondary Education, M.P., Bhopal

13. Managing Director, MemberM.P. Text Book Corporation, Bhopal

14. Representative - NCERT Member15. Representative - Navodaya Vidyalaya Sangathan Member

AcknowledgementM.P. Rajya Shiksha Kendra gratefully acknowledges the contribution ofDr. Prem Bharati, Educationist and member, State Level General Body and workingcommittee M.P. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, in the development of textbooks.

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PrefaceThe new text book is an attempt to execute the national curriculum 2005, in

which investment in information, associating children with life outside school,

reducing the tradition of textual knowledge and learning by memorization and to

work in the direction of child centered learning. To meet these aims of education,

M.P. Education Deptt. and M.P. Board of Secondary education have developed an

intergrated a new curriculum. In this subject matter related to Environment,

Geography, History, Political Science and Economics has been incorporated. The

new textbook of class 9 has been prepared on the basis of a new integrated

curriculum keeping in mind the cognitive development of students of class 9.

Children will be able to create new learning by relating to the information and

contents of the book.

Its hoped that the new textbook of Social Science will help the learners to

grasp the information related to the subject in an easy and simple manner. It will also

help to develop their skills and qualitative development in the subject. The book will

help in childrens' participation in learning, reducing mental pressure and making the

contents interesting. The Board of Secondary Education is grateful to all the people

and institutions who have given their valuable contribution in the preparation of the

book. The Board also expresses its heartfelt gratitude to the author whose literature

has been used in book writing. In the end the Board of Secondary Education

expresses its gratitude to the teachers/educationists and parents who have given their

valuable suggestions for the improvement of the book.

Its a collective effort of writers, moderators and subject coordinators, under

the guidance of a standing committee. It has been our endeavour to develop a book

without errors but improvement is a continuous process, in human effort there is

always a scope for improvement. Therefore suggestions are invited for improving the

book.

Commissioner

Rajya Siksha Kendra,

Bhopal

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About the BookSocial Science is a very interesting subject as it is related to our

social environment. But the teaching of it is very generalized. Thisalso affects the desired results. Therefore while teaching, realisticpicturisation of subject matter is very important.

Keeping the above fact in mind an effort has been made toincorporate the subject matters of Environment, Geography, History,Political Science and Economics in an interesting manner. Thefollowing efforts have been made in the book -

� The contents and skills related to the chapters have been givenunder the heading of ‘We will study’ in the beginning. This willhelp the teachers while teaching and evaluation.

� The book has been made in two colours and important informationhas been shown in bold and in boxes.

� Maximum efforts to provide information through graphs, picturesand maps have been made.

� Colourful maps have been given which will make the subjectinteresting and learning easy. This will also help in developingskills and understanding.

� Difficult words have been given at the end so that an understandingof the definition of words develops in the students.

� Exercises towards the end of the lessons have been given todevelop the writing skills, self thinking, relating facts with eachother developing the skill of drawing conclusions, and the abilityto express information. Very short questions, short questions andlong questions and map work has been included for the same.Objective type questions have been included so that children getfamiliarized with the pattern of competitive exam. In the exercises,knowledge understanding, application and skill based questionshave been included which will help in the correct evaluation ofthe level of students learning.

� Project work has been included in the activities which will helpin developing the potential of the child. Besides students will alsolearn to relate with surrounding environment and daily life andacquire knowledge.

Writers

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Curriculum

Social Science Class - 901. Man and Environment 08

Meaning of environment, Elements and Importance, Natural and culturalenvironment. Man and environment relationship, types and effect ofenvionmental pollution, corrective measures. Ecological degradation andchanging patterns of landuse, Factors responsible for this: Population growth,Industrialisation and Urbanisation, Transport, Encroachment on water bodies,Facilities for tourism, pilgrimage, Recreation and adventure, Construction oflarge dams, Mining and war. Resources of Natural environment, utilizationand conservation.Some success stories of environmental conservation e.g., C.N.G., ChipkoMovement, Silent Valley, Water Harvesting. Role of Envionmental ImpactAssessment (EIA).

02. India: Location, Physical Divisions 04Geographical Location of India, Physical division.

03. Climate & Drainage Pattern 04Factors affecting climate, Monsoon and its Characteristics, Rainfall andTemperature Distribution, Effect of Weather and Climate on Human Life.Rivers: Major & Minor, Lakes and Seas, Role of Rivers in Economicdevelopment of the Country, River Pollution and measures for control.

04. Natural Vegetation and Wild life 04Types of Vegetation, Altitudinal Variation in Vegetation, Major wild lifespecies, and their distribution, need & various measures for conservationWild Animals, National Parks and Sanctuaries of Madhya Pradesh.

05. Population 05Distribution, Sex Ratio, Literacy & Introduction to National PopulationPolicy.

06. Map : Study and Depiction 05

07. Ancient India:- 10Indus valley Civilization, Vedic civilization, Mauryan Period, Gupta Period,Brief introduction to the political history of Harsha period.

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08. Medieval India 10Invasion of the Arabs, Ghazni and Ghori, Delhi Sultanat and a brief introduc-tion to the Mughal period. Vijayanagar and Bahamani Empires, brief historyof Maharana Pratap, Rani Durgawati and Maharaja Shivaji, Fall of the Mughals

09. Major Cultural Trends 10From the early history to the fall of the Mughals, Literature, painting,Architecture, Sculpture, Dance and Music etc.

10. Concept of Democracy 06Meaning and Definition, Basic Principles, Types and Importance.Evolution of Democracy in India: Concept of Democracy in ancient India,Necessity & Importance of Constitution for democracy.

11. Election 07Party System: Meaning and Importance; Indian Electoral Process and theRole of Election Commission; Voting rights,:- Meaning & Definition, Con-ditions for acquiring voting right.

12. Constitutional Rights and Duties of Citizen 07Fundamental Rights granted by the Constitution; Fundamental duties,Right to Information

13. Development of Rural Economy 06An introduction to Village based economy in ancient India, Concept an IdealVillage, A study of Village economy in Madhya Pradesh.

14. Economic Challenges Facing India 08Poverty : Meaning, Causes, Poverty alleviation Programme, Various Types ofHeavy Medium, Small and Cottage Industries in India.

15. Food Security 06Varieties of food grains in India, Need of Food Security, Role of Government,Public distribution System and Fair Price shops.

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Social Science

Unitwise marks distribution

Unit Subject content / Lesson Marks Period

1. Man and Environment 04 06

2. Conservation of Environment 04 06

3. India : Location, Physical Division 04 06

4. Drainage System 02 02

5. Climate 02 04

6. Natural Vegetation and wild life 04 05

7. Population 05 08

8. Map - Study and Depiction 05 05

9. Ancient India 10 14

10. Medieval India 10 14

11. Major Cultural Trends 10 15

12. Democracy 06 10

13. Election 07 12

14. Constitutional Rights and Duties 07 14

of citizens

15. Rural Economy 06 12

16. Poverty - An Economic challenge for India 04 07

17. State of Industries in India 04 08

18. Food Security 06 12

Revision 20

Total 100 180

Marks Distribution as per objectives

Objectives PercentageKnowledge 35

Understanding 50

Application 15

Total 100

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INDEX

Chapter Subject Chapter PageNo.

1. Geography Man and Environment 1

2. Efforts and successes of 15Environmental Conservation

3. India : Location and Physical Division 23

4. India : Drainage System 38

5. India : Climate 45

6. India : Natural Vegetation and Wild Life 56

7. India : Population 69

8. Map : Reading and Numbering 82

Appendix 93

9. History History of Ancient India 96

10. Medieval India 117

11. Major Cultural Trends 143

12. Civics Democracy 161

13. Election 173

14. Constitutional Rights and Duties 187of Citizens

15. Economics Growth of Rural Economy 205

16. Poverty : An Economic Challenge 225

for India

17. State of Industries in India 234

18. Food Security in India 245

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1.1 Indian concept ofEnvironment

1.2 Natural and CulturalEnvironment

1.3 Resources of NaturalEnvironment

1.4 Relationship of Man andEnvironment and its effects

1.5 Types and Impact ofEnvironmental Pollution

1.6 Change in land use and itseffects

�We Will Study1.1 Indian Concept of Environment:

Since ancient times detailed descriptionsof the mutual relationship between man andnature are found in literature. Nature isrepresented in the form of Mother in the Vedas.In the hope of having a healthy environmentman has maintained passionate relations withthe environment in his life style. His debttowards the environment is exposed in theform of sensitivity, honour, passion and safety.Man and Environment are the creator, parentand saviour of each other.

It is evident from the Vedas and Puranasthat we have always worshiped nature and its

various sources. We offer our prayers to water sources such as the Ganga, the Yamuna,the Saraswati, to trees plants like the Banyan, Peepal, Neem and Tulsi. We also bowbefore the Sun, the Moon and the Earth and mother nature has sustaned like her children.Nature is infact life. It is believed that the environment receives fragrance as we burnDhoop. The Upanishads assume earth as the body of the supernatural, heaven? as hisbrain, the Sun and the Moon as his eyes and skies as his mind. Therefore it isn't properto cut trees and to pollute sources of water.

It is believed in Hinduism that the God of rains (Indra) is pleased by the worshipof Agni, Jal, Vayu and Prathvi and performance of yagya, and he pours rain water a resultnature flourishes and fulfils human necessities.

The religion of Christianity considers nature as a Goddess. Wordsworth, Keatsand Shelley became great poets of the world in the lap of Nature.

The Verses of Islam taboo killing of lives and instruct to save flora and fauna.Hazrat Abu Bakra asks not to destroy the fruit giving trees, crops and animals. ProphetMohammad used to sit besides a palm tree delivering sermons to his disciples. BadshahAkbar used to believe in Havan, Yagya, Veda, Surya Namaskar and worship of Tulsi andPeepal trees. The propogator of Buaddissm Lord Buddha received enlightenment underthe People tree. In Jainism also all sages are required to spend time in natural

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Man and Environment

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environment. In Jainism any kind of violence against living beings is a taboo. Thus allreligions have the provision of conservation of Nature.

1.2 Natural and Cultural Environment:

Environment is a broad term. By environment we mean all those conditions whichare necessary for the existence of living things. The literal meaning of environment isall that surrounds us, such as air, water, flora and fauna, the Earth, the Sun, the Moon, thestars and the sky etc. The villages, cities, dams, roads etc. made by man are also part ofenvironment. Environment is basically of two types; one which is made by nature suchas hills, plains, plateau, flora and fauna, rivers, animals, birds etc. The other is that whichman has made to fulfil his needs such as villages, cities, houses, roads, railways, damsetc. The first type of environment is known as physical or natural environment. It is oftwo types: organic and inorganic, The second type of environment is called the Socio-cultural environment, it is also of two types - first that which is physically observablesuch as the houses, roads, dams, fields etc. and second which is observed in variousbehaviors such as religion, rites and rituals, food habits, festivals etc.

Man & Environment

Elements of Natural Elements of CulturalEnvironment Environment

Physical Food

Features Clothing

Housing

Climate Habitat

Drainage system Occupation

Vegetation Religious rituals

Soil Social Practices

Water Transport

Living organisms Politics

Mineral Resources Art's

Technology

Natural or Physical Environment : This includes all natural elements in naturesuch as location, geomorphology, rocks, climate, vegetation, wild life, minerals, waterbodies, ocean etc. Man's existence depends upon these elements.

Cultural and Social Environment : The socio-cultural environment develops dueto the mutual relationship between man and natural environment. This includes theeconomic and social activities created, developed and conducted by man such as farming,

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industry, rites andrituals, settlement,roads, railways, airservices, means ofirrigation, governmentsystem and science andtechnology. Man keepschanging and modifyinghis natural environment.

List the natural andcultural elements ofenvironment found in the surroundings of your school and discuss them in your class.

1.3 Resources of Natural Environment

Nature has given many gifts to man for the fulfilment of his needs such as rocks,minerals, soil, rivers, plants and animals etc. The Value of any resource is expressed withreference to economy, law morality and aesthetics. When any physical thing or matteris useful or valuable to man it is called a resource. Resources are generally of threetypes.

❖ Population❖ Health❖ Education❖ Working efficie

Type of Resources

Natural Resources

Renewable❖ Air❖ Agriculture❖ Water❖ Forests

Non Renewable❖ Non cyclic -

Fossil fuel(coal, petrol)

❖ Cyclic-metallicMinerals

Human Resource

The resources which are given to us by nature and where man's rolein its creation is nil are called Natural Resources.

Renewable Resources : Resources, which are reproduceable after use or can beused again e.g.: forests, pastures, agricultural land.

Non Renewable Resources : Those resources which once exploited cannot bereproduced or supplied in the near future such as petroleum, coal.

� Environment is a combination of physical and culturalelements.

� The elements of environment are sources of immensepower.

� The impact of the environment is both visible andinvisible.

� Environment is changeable.� Environment has regional diversity.� Environment has terrestrial unity.� There is regularity in the functioning of the environment.

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Human Resources

Human resource means the number and quality of human beings. Education andhealth increase man's physical and mental capacity. Man himself is a major resource whouses the natural elements as resource on the basis of his knowledge, labour and technicalknow how. He is the producer and the consumer of resources.

Man made Resources

Man-made resources are those which are produced by man to utilize the physicalenvironment such as machines, buildings, tools etc.

Land Resources

Land is an important natural resource. It is the basis of the whole living world. Landis used for housing, roads, railways, farming, pastures and mining etc. Land use is not thesame in different areas. 29% of the earth is landmass and 71% is covered with water.

Agricultural Resources

Land, soil and water are the fundamental means of farming. Farming is easier incoastal areas and in the alluvial soil of the river valleys. The per acre crop productionhas increased with the help of fertilizers, pesticides, various means of irrigation, hybridseeds and machines.

Water Resources

Water on the earth's surface is obtained through rains, rivers, lakes, ponds, glaciers,waterfall wells, tube wells. The water is used for irrigation, industry, domestic supply,fish farming and water transport. In the whole world, most of the water is used forfarming. Much water is wasted in floods and this leads to loss of property and cropsevery year. For better use and management of water, multipurpose river valley projectshave been prepared.

Soil Resources

Good soil is essential for the growth of vegetation. Living beings are dependent onplants for their food. Soil formation is a slow process. In soil formation types of rocks,climate, land slope, types of vegetation have specific contribution. Fertility of soildepends on all these.

Forest Resources

30% of the total land area of the world is covered by forests. Forests are foundonly in those areas which have adequate rains. Forests do not grow in dry and snowyareas. Forests have specific importance for us. The trees absorb Carbon-di-oxide fromthe atmosphere and release Oxygen, therefore forests are considered as the store houseof life giving Oxygen for all living beings. Forests conserve water and soil. They increase

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the underground water level. They also prevent soil erosion and trauma of floods. Forestsare safe habitat for wild life. Many industries are based on wood and medicinal plantsfound in forests.

1.4 Relationship of Man and Environment and its Effects

Man and environment are dependent on each other, environment nurtures the humanrace and in turn is also influenced by man. Man is directly related to environment andlike man, other living beings are also dependent on environment for food, water, air andshelter. Man and other living beings use things given by nature. Man is dependent on thefactors of environment for his physical, cultural, industrial and economic progress. Byusing the elements of the natural environment he has built farms, factories, towns, cities,roads, railways, dams and canals. Religion, beliefs and practices and culture have alldeveloped on the same basis.

The environment has deteriorated due to human interference with the naturalenvironment. As a result of population growth, urbanization, industrialization, farming,transportation and progress in technology the natural structure has changed. Previouslyman considered nature as a means of sustaining life but in the modern industrial era hewants to dominate nature by exploiting its treasures in irrational ways. This has pollutedthe air, water and soil and food. At some places forests are being destroyed where asin other places vegetation is being destroyed. Thousands of people are suffering fromdroughts, floods and land slides. The stores of natural resources are gradually beingexhausted. Fertile land is being transformed into barren land, deserts are increasing andagricultural land is decreasing. Even the increasing means of irrigation and modern waysof farming are proving inadequate to supply sufficient food for the growing population.Actually all these conditions are created by man himself. Man creates an imbalance inthe environment by the injudicious exploitation of nature for short term profit whichresults in environmental pollution. This state of imbalance is also hazardous for thevegetation and other living things. Man has created his cultural environment with the helpof good food, housing accessibility, desire to rest and cognitive skills.

Pollution : The unwanted change occurring in the natural formation andbalance of the environment is known as environmental pollution.

Pollutants : The unusable substances responsible for pollution which arepresent in excess quantity are called pollutants. Pollutants are of two types.1. Natural Pollutants 2. man- made pollutants such as pesticides, fertilizers,glass, plastic, radio active substances, metals, lead, various types of chemicals.

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1.5 Types of Pollution and their Impact on the Environment

Air Pollution : Disturbance of balance among the various gases in the air or thepresence of unwanted gases is known as air pollution. It is produced due to smokecoming out of factories, use of pesticides, chemical tests and decomposition of litterand dead organic matter. Increase of Carbon-di-oxide in the atmosphere has increasedthe temperature of the atmosphere. As a result the polar ice caps are melting and sealevel may rise by about a meter causing submergence of coastal regions. Burning of coaland mineral oil also adds Sulphur di oxide in the atmosphere which results in the burningof the eyes, hoarseness of the throat, respiratory and lung diseases. Air pollution alsocauses acid rains. The danger of increase in the hole in the Ozone layer is also on therise because of air pollution.

Acid Rain : The Sulphur-di-oxide and Nitrogen gases coming out of thefactories mixup in the atmosphere, they react with the existing vapours andproduce sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively. This acid pours downwith the rain water on the earth. It is called acid rain. The term 'acid rain'was first coined by a British scientist in 1873.

In India the concentration of gases producing acid rain in the atmosphereof cities such as Agra, Mumbai and Delhi is on the rise. Acid rain destroysthe green covering of the earth. Leaves start falling from the trees and theimmunity of the plants is reduced. Standing crops in the fields are destroyed.

Ozone hole : It is about 20-35 km. above the sea level in the atmosphere. Thislayer absorbs the ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and thus protects theliving beings on the earth. Ozone is a composite group of atoms. Due to theexcessive use of Chloro Flouro Carbon (CFC) in appliances such as refrigeratorsand air conditioners, a hole is caused in the ozone layer. This hole was first of allobserved above Antartica in 1985, now the hole has got extended to SouthAustralia, North America and Europe.

Due to the hole in the Ozone layer the wrath of ultraviolet rays on the earth'ssurface is spreading. As a result the possibility of skin cancer is increasing. It alsoreduces the immunity of the human body. Due to the decreasing rate of photosynthesis,growth of flora and fauna is hampered and forests are drying up. Carbon-di-oxide andother heat resistant gases absorb some part of the heat and reflect it back to the earth'ssurface. As a result extra heat is stored in the lower atmosphere and its temperatureincreases. This is called Global warming.

Water Pollution: The entry of some unwanted substances in the natural waterwhich reduce its purity is known as water pollution. Polluted water is not suitable forman, animals, vegetation, sea animals and irrigation. The causes of water pollution are

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soil erosion, leaves of trees, domesticdrainage and sewage, effluents fromfactories, fertilizers and pesticides andthe hot water flowing from nuclearreactors and spreading of mineral oil onsea surface. Lead, Mercury, Chromiumdissolved in the polluted water destroythe intestines and cells of the kidney.The polluted water results in the excessive growth of algae in rivers and lakes. Thisresults in the depletion of dissolved oxygen due to which fishes and other aquaticanimals die of suffocation.

Noise Pollution : Any sound that disturbs the mental activities is known as noisepollution. Thereforenoise is an unwantedsound. Any sound whichis at a high pitch thannormal voice is callednoise. Fast increasingpopulation, factories,railways, means of roadtransport, aeroplanes,radio speakers, crackersand sound producinginstruments are the sources of noise. Due to noise pollution man becomes disturbed andtense. This increases irritability and headaches and also has ill effects on the health.

Soil Pollution: Any unwanted change in the physical, chemical or biologicalattributes of the earth which destroys the fertility and utility of land, is soil pollution.Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers, industrialization, urbanization, plastic andpolythene, continuous irrigation with salty water, domestic litter, waste from hospitals,waste from mines etc. are various causes of soil pollution. Soil pollution and litter makethe visible land dirty. Due to the deposition of the waste or coarse material the landbecomes unsuitable for other uses. There is danger of soil erosion, land slides andconversion of land into ravines. Hundreds of acres of land around the destitute Magrahacoal mine has sunk. The hoardings placed around it read 'Danger Zone', 'Don't go ahead'meaning that the earth's crust has been destroyed.

Radioactive Pollution: Due to the use of nuclear elements for various purposesradioactive particles enter the atmosphere and produce radio active pollution. Uranium,

● Approximately 90% surface water ispolluted in India.

● The Ganga, Hugli, Damodar, Gomti,Yamuna, Godawari rivers are polluteddue to the industrial and the urbanwastes and sewerage.

● Unit of noise is Decibel

● 66-75 decibel sound is considered as a normal noise.

● Noise level of 140 decibels causes nervous disorder.

● Rio-de-Janeiro is the city having highest noise in theworld, where noise pollution is 120 decibel.

● According to a survey in Mumbai metropolis of Indiapeople are suffering from lack of peace, tension anduneasiness due to noise pollution.

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Thorium, Schizium, Plutonium, Cobalt, Strontium etc. are radioactive substances used innuclear processes. They are the causes of Radioactive pollution. The effects of radiationspreading from radio active substances are long lasting. The excessive energy releasedduring nuclear tests destroys human and animal cells. The harmful radio active substancessuch as strontium destroy fertility of soil.

● Radio active pollution has both direct and indirect effects on ourbodies.

● Radio active radiation directly enters our bodies through therespiratory track in the form of air and gases.

● It indirectly affects our bodies through the food chain.● The radio active substances harm the bone-marrow, white blood

corpuscles, lymphocytes and spleen in our bodies and causes cancerand infertility.

Thermal Pollution : An unwanted increase in normal temperature in the worldwhich affects the biosphere is Thermal Pollution. Carbon dioxide, Methane, C.F.C.,Nitrous oxide, heat from thermal power stations, water from industries, Ozone hole,forest fire and nuclear tests increase atmospheric temperature. Drought, floods, dryingof permanent water sources, increase in sea level, extinction of water animals, lowagricultural production due to climate change, ozone depletion etc. are the ill effects ofthermal pollution.

1.6 Change in land use and its effectsPrimitive man used to collect food from nature for his sustenance. Then he was

totally dependent on nature. Available water and air were adequately pure in those times. Astime passed, science and technology developed. In his efforts to win over nature, manstarted influencing the environment to fullfill his own needs. He made unnecessarydisturbances in the natural environment. As a result of rapid progress by man andconsequent urbanization and industrialization the natural environment underwent significantchanges. The major cause of decline of the natural environment in the world is the changingform of land use.

In India forests are being destroyed to increase agricultural fields. For humansettlement rural areas are being captured by urban people. Open areas are graduallydisappearing. Deforestation, construction of big dams for hydro-electricity and irrigation,spread of new roads and railways and development of factories has transformed land usein India to a great extent. This has disturbed the natural balance. The habitat of varioustypes of animals have been destroyed and thousands of species of flora and fauna havebecome extinct.

The continuous interference with the environment for the sake of human settlementand industrial and economic development is causing environmental degradation.

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The degradation of the natural environment is the result of continuous and irrationalexploitation of natural resources by man. Many factors are responsible for the changingform of land all over the world; The following factors are responsible for this -

Population growth and reproduction : Today in various countries enormousgrowth in the number of human beings has resulted in population explosion. Human lifespan has improved due to progress in the field of medicine. The mortality rate has comedown. Deaths due to ailments, drought, war etc. are on the decline. As a result mortalityrate has unexpectedly gone down and population has gone up. Due to growth inpopulation problems such as crowds, unemployment, scarcity of resources, pollution,mental and social tensions have come up.

Deforestation : Deforestationmeans irrational cutting of forestsor plants from some regions.Reduction of forests is the result ofhuman efforts. In the old method ofshifting cultivation, trees were cutand burnt. The land was used forfarming for sometime and thendiscarded. This method of farmingharmed the forests. Due to theconstruction of huge dams, building of hydro electricity projects, distribution ofelectricity and spread of railways and roads, extension of habitat areas and cutting oftrees for fuel and industries, forests have been harmed.

For environmental balance in India, 33% of the total land should be covered byforests, but this percentage is only 21 at present. The excessive deforestation inHimalayan and northeastern border areas have resulted in soil erosion. Land slides inthese areas are a common occurrence. The underground water level in Rajasthan, Gujaratand Haryana has gone down. The desert areas have increased.

Excessive Grazing : Excessive use of forest land for grazing and intake ofvegetation by domestic animals is called excessive grazing. As a result vegetation doesnot grow again very fast in these areas. The ill effect is that the layer of vegetation fromland is destroyed. Due to soil erosion the danger of spread of deserts arises. In suchareas soil absorbs less water and plants do not get adequate water. Such a situation hasdeveloped in the highlands of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Madhya Pradesh.

Harmful Experiments in Agriculture : In order to fulfil the increasing demand offood crops there is a common practice to use plenty of chemical fertilizers, pesticides andweed killing chemicals to enhance production. Salination has increased as a result ofinadequate drainage of water from the fields. Nutrients of the soil are reduced due to

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prevalence of excessive water . About 33 lakh hectares of land falling in the areas of theChambal, the Mahi, the Yamuna, the Sabarmati and their tributaries have turned into ravines.Excessive mining means digging of land for extracting minerals and other substances. InIndia about 80 lakh hectares of land is under mining. Trees are being cut from the land. Asa result currents of underground water are hampered, land slides, deposition of wastematerial, soil erosion and formation of new land forms occur. The ill effects of excessivemining can be observed in Doon valley formed by the Ganga and Yamuna, which aresurrounded by the Himalayan ranges. Previously this valley area was world famous for theproduction of Basmati Rice, Litchi and Tea. But now due to uncontrolled mining of limestone only 12% valley area has greenery. In the Jaipur, Jodhpur and Udaipur districts due tomining of stones the surrounding greenery has been destroyed. The Kanger valley nationalpark is in danger because of Dolomite mines of Bastar.

Urbanization : Cities are extended by including nearby rural areas. For extensiongenerally the farms, forests and pasture land are captured. The process of extension ofcities is urbanization. As a result of urbanization there is increase in population densityand transport facilities, roads, railways, hospitals, community centers etc. are on rise. Allthese increase the pollution. The increasing deposition of waste influences human health.About 5 crore people in India reside in the four metropolises of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkataand Chennai. These cities are suffering from drinking water problem, urban pollution,unemployment and lack of peace.

Industrialization and Extension of slums : Keeping in mind the present andfuture needs, factories producing various goods are increasing in number. The processof establishment and extension of industries is called Industrialization. In the process, onthe one hand farms and forests are used and on the other hand raw materials from themines have to be supplied. These factories release poisonous gases in the atmosphere.This disturbs atmospheric balance and increases air pollution. The waste materials areleft open in surrounding areas. The polluted water is drained in the rivers which directlyinfluences human health and environment. Industrialization is the main source of air,water, noise, land, chemical and radio active pollution. In Kolkata a metropolis of Indiathe water of Damodar and Hugli rivers has been poisoned by the effluents of the hearbysteel factories, chemical industries, distillaries and paper and jute mills. The same is trueof the Ganga, Yamuna and Chambal rivers. Therefore industry is a boon but a curse forthe environment.

Construction of Huge Dams : Exploitation of natural resources is indispensable,for the fulfilment of the needs of growing population. Along with land, forest andmineral resources, water resources have also been exploited.

Dams are being constructed on big rivers for purposes of irrigation, hydro-electricity, canals, fishing, water transportation and flood control. About 700 dams have

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been constructed after independence. These dams are useful for the generation ofelectricity, storing water for irrigation and drinking purposes, recreation facilities likeboating, fishery development etc. However along with these benefits, large dams alsohave some adverse effects on the environment. Whenever a river valley project is startedthe construction of houses for the workers, construction of roads, railways and undergroundtunnels becomes essential. As a result the greenery of large areas surrounding theconstruction site disappears. The artificial lakes made from the huge dams drownsforests and farm land. The alkalinity of the land increases due to water drained from thecanals of the dam and its fertility decreases. Due to the prevalence of continuous waterin dam and canal areas the nearby land becomes unsuitable for agriculture. Humansettlements are displaced from the dam areas. Many families were displaced from damareas such as in the Bhakra dam and Pong dam . The later were rehabilitated in desertareas.

Big dams bring in their wake displacement of human population, irrepairable lossto wild life, diversion of agricultural land and shrinkage of forest cover. The golden ruletherefore is that the above problems be kept in mind while constructing big dams.

For the construction of Indira Sagar and Sardar Sarovar dams atNarmada river many families were displaced. What were the problemsfaced by them? Discuss in your class.

Facilities for Tourism, Pilgrimage, Entertainment and adventure activitiesProgress of the means of tourism, pilgrimage and entertainment is also an effective

cause of environmental degradation. Generally all these facilities are developed in thoseareas which are the source of natural environment and fresh water. In India such placesare basically the national parks, sanctuaries, areas of biodiversity, origin of rivers andpeaks of mountains. The main cause of environmental degradation in areas used fortourism, pilgrimage, and adventures is human activities. Tourists going to Amarnaththrow polythene bags and litter on their way. Mountaineers also leave the left overs ontheir route. Besides the arrangement of stay at these places also encourage environmentaldegradation.

Terms

Environment : Surroundings or the conditions under which a person or thingexists and develops his or its character. It covers both physicaland cultural elements.

Natural resources : Wealth provided by nature like mineral deposits, soil fertility,timber, fuel, water potential, aquatic animals and wild life.

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Resource : Any thing on the earth which is useful for man.

Creater : one who creates.

Conservation : To save or to preserve.

Multipurpose : Something which has more than one objective or purpose.

Land Slide : Land sliding down under the force of gravity of a mass of landon a mountain or hill side

Nitric Acid : When Nitrous oxide reacts with water it forms nitric acid whichis a poisonous gas.

Disease Resistant : To have the capacity to resist a disease.

Ozone Layer : An allotropic form of oxygen, Ozone consists of three atoms ofoxygen. It is a thick layer in the atmosphere which preventsharmful ultra violet rays from reaching the earth and protect lifeon the earth.

Exercises

I. Choose the correct answer.

1. Unit of measuring noise is -

(i) Centimeter (ii) Decibel

(iii) Celsius (iv) Millibar

2. City with the highest intensity of noise in the world

(i) Mumbai (ii) New York

(iii) Rio-de-Janeiro (iv) Tokyo

3. Where was the Ozone hole observed in 1985 ?

(i) Australia (ii) Antartica

(iii) Western Europe (iv) Alaska

4. Ozone layer is

(i) 15 km above the earth's surface

(ii) 5-10 km above the earth's surface

(iii) 75-100 km above the earth's surface

(iv) 32-80 km above the earth's surface

5. Main cause of environmental degradation is

(i) Increase in tourism (ii) Shifting cultivation

(iii) Changing nature of land use (iv) All the above

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6. Population explosion is

(i) Migration

(ii) Equal death rate and birth rate

(iii) Crowding

(iv) Continuous increase in number of humans

7. 'Cut and Burn' is related to-

(i) Shifting cultivation (ii) Tourism and pilgrimage

(iii) Mining (iv) Construction of dam

II. Fill in the blanks :

1. Any physical thing or matter, which is valuable to man is called ............. .

2. ................% of the earth is landmass and .............% is covered with mater.

3. ............% of the total land area of the world is covered by forests.

4. The term 'acid rain' was first coined by a British Scientists in ............ .

5. Bastar is famous for .................... mines.

Very short answer type of questions

1. What do you mean by environment ?

2. What is the meaning of cultural environment ?

3. Name five polluted rivers of India.

4. What is global warming ?

Short answer type questions

1. How does air or noise pollution affect human health? Explain.

2. How do radio active substances spread pollution ?

3. Differentiate between pollution and pollutants ?

4. Explain the problem of Ozone depletion.

5. What is soil pollution ? What are its ill effects ?

6. What do you understand by population explosion ?

7. How does overgrazing affect the quality of land ?

8. Describe the process of shifting agriculture.

9. What is deforestation ? List the reasons of deforestation.

10. Insecticides should not be used in excess amount. Why?

11. What are the harmful effects of mining on the environment of a region ?

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12. How does urbanization destroy the environment ?

Long answer type questions

1. Explaining the Indian concept of environment. Describe how man is related tohis environment ?

2. What is environment ? What are the main elements of environment ? How hasman affected the environment ? Explain.

3. What do you mean by pollution ? Describe different types of pollution.

4. What is the meaning of resource ? Describe various types of resources withexamples.

5. How does changing use of land affect the environment ? Explain.

6. How does over population affect human life? Explain.

7. How is the construction of huge dams harmful for the environment? Explain.

8. Centralization of industries is very dangerous for the environment. Explainwith examples.

9. What do you mean by water pollution? River pollution is increasing in India.Describe.

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We Will Study

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Efforts and successes of Environmental Conservation

2.1 Need for EnvironmentalConservation

2.2 A study of EnvironmentalEffects

2.3 Role of EnvironmentImpact Assessment (E.I.A.)

2.4 'Chipko' movement2.5 Silent valley2.6 C.N.G.2.7 Efforts for water

conservation

2.1 Need for Environmental Conservation

A variety of plants and animals live on theearth. Man is the most intelligent and powerfulliving being, but nature has not given him the rightto destroy the resources. It is necessary to usethem carefully. Today environmental imbalance isthe burning problem of the world. To rectify theproblems of pollution it is necessary to makepeople aware of the need to protect theenvironment. Environmental conservation ispossible only when environmentalists, leaders andpolicy makers make collective efforts.

�

2.2 Study of Environmental Effects

Environmental conservation is the planned management of the environment and theresources to prevent its destruction and exploitation.

World population is increasing at an alarming rate, due to which natural resourcesare in great demand. Pollution is increasing day by day due to rapid and irrationalexploitation. Keeping in mind the needs of the future it is necessary to conserve plants,animals and other natural resources (water, air, minerals).

Man is also a component of nature. Human existence without nature is possible fora short time but not for ever. If human beings want to exist in future they have to befriendly with nature. For which we should keep in mind the following points.

● Use of family planning and birth control measures to control populationgrowth.

● Use of biofertilizers and vermicomposting in agriculture.

● Pumping underground water by using solar energy.

● Use of biogas for cooking.

● Construction of dams and water dividers for irrigation.

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● Encouragement plantation.

● Following crop rotation.

● Conservation of wildlife, plants and animals and development of Nationalparks and Sanctuaries.

● Enforcing Prohibition of bird and animal hunting.

● Enforcing Prohibition of use of plastic.

● Use of non-conventional energy sources (as solar energy, wind energy).

● Management of urban waste by municipal corporations.

● Recycling of industrial waste and products.

● Maintenance of machines in industries and control of noise pollution

World Forest day, Water day, Population day and Environment Day with socialparticipation to increase people's awareness towards environment should be organised.

2.2 Study of Environmental Effects

The progress of man in different fields of life is the result of uncontrolledexploitation of natural resources. Currently environmental pollution has reached itshighest level. It is very dangerous for human society.

Till now while preparing a project for development we have concentrated on threeobjectives-

1. The project should maximize economic return.

2. The project should be technically feasible

3. It should be minimally harmful for the environment.

Now we are concentrating more on the third objective. To fulfil this objectiveEnvionmental Impact Assessment is necessary.

2.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

The Environmental Impact Assessment aims to achieve sustained development withminimum harm to the environment and to prevent any short-term and long-term adverseeffects on the environment. EIA evaluates the beneficial and adverse effects ofdevelopment projects, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The aim of EIA is to ensurethat development is achieved with minimal degradation of the environment. EnvrionmentalImpact Assessment is a concept which seeks to find ways to ensure that the developmentalprocess and protection of the environment progress in harmony. Whenever a newdevelopment project is planned, it is necessary to know its effects on the climate of thatparticular area, vegetation, animals and society. How will the development projects suchas power plants, dams, iron and steel industries affect the environment? It is very

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necessary in edible oil, paper and cement industry therefore it is mandatory to preparean Environment Impact Statement (EIS) before implementation of these projects.

Environmental Impact Assessment is an important technique of maintainingenvironmental quality. Its aims and objectives are as follows -

● Development without causing damage to environment

● Maintenance of quality of environment

● Sustainable development so that the present as well as future generationsare able to meet their needs

● Emphasis on prevention rather than cure of envionmental degradation

● Use of EIA as an effective tool of design making on development action

Environmental Impact Statement is prepared before planning a project whichincludes information related to land, surface, soil, animals, socio-economic effects,pollution and disaster management.

Elements of EIA

● Effect on land including land degradation

● possibility of earthquakes

● possible effects on surface and ground water quality, soil and airquality

● possible effects on plants, wild life and endangered species

● Estimation of level of noise pollution

● Socio-economic impact

● Recycling and reduction of waste

● Efficient use of wastes and residuals

● Risk analysis and disaster management

Methods of Environmental Impact Assessment

Environmental Impact Assessment is conducted in three stages. These three stagesare Initial Scrutiny, Rapid Envionmental Impact Assessment and Comprehensive ImpactAssessment.

Initial screening of a project is done to decide whether the impact assessment isactually needed for the project being undertaken or not. If it is felt that the project islikely to cause some adverse effects on the environment, it is subjected to RapidEnvironmental Assessment. Rapid Assessment attempts to identify the key issues in aproject. Comprehensive Environmental Assessment is undertaken after the Initial and

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Rapid Impact Assessment have been performed. Critical aspects of the project are takenup at this stage. If needed, the project may not be approved for implementation.

In India, the Environmental Impact Assessment of development projects is theresponsibility of the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India. Theministry constitutes Environmental Appraisal Committee for different sectors ofdevelopment projects. These projects are related to river valley and irrigation, mining,industries, thermal power projects, tourism, metallurgy, textile, rubber, leather, paper,transport and chemical industries etc. special expert committees are formed for differentprojects and EIA is prepared by them.

2.4 Chipko movement

The Chipko movement proved a successful strategy for protecting natural resources.It is not only a movement to save trees, but it also provides the basis for permanenteconomic welfare (in terms of food, grass, fuel, fertilizers and clothing) by making ademand for a total transformation in land policy. The scope of this movement is notconfined to India but it extends to Switzerland, Germany and Holland. Women'sparticipation in this movement is remarkable. The success of the Chipko movement hasproved that the solution to intense problems is not possible by only making laws, ratherpublic awareness and comprehension of rights are also essential for it.

The Chipko movement was started in 1974. That year an Allahabad based sportsproduction company named Simond was given the contract of cutting trees of the Anguspecies in Chamoli district. The wood of the trees of Angu species is used to makeagricultural tools. The use of this wood was prohibited for local people. The decision toauction off hundreds of acres of forest area in the Renigaon of Chamoli created muchdissatisfaction among the people. The forest department tried to pacify their revolt byinviting the menfolk of Renigaon and nearby villages to Chamoli for payment ofcompensation for the role they had played during war time. At the same time the forestworkers and labourers reached Renigaon to cut trees, creating much disturbance in thevillage. In the absence of the menfolk, an ordinary woman named Gangadevi cameforward to resist cutting of trees by the forest labourers. She went door to door andmotivated girls and women to register their revolt. Under the leadership of Murarilal andGangadevi about 27 women and girls embraced the trees. Thus a non-violent techniqueof Chipko was used to save trees under the leadership of Gangadevi. The women said thatthe forest was their parental home. They would not let it be cut at any cost. Even the gunsof contractors and forest employees and the bribery offered by them could notdiscourage the women's. Their resistance finally transformed the forest labourers' hearts.The women kept on surrounding and embracing trees for two days and nights continuously.They also broke the one and only bridge at the entrance of the forest. After this event

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of 26th March 1974, Renigaon became the battlefield of the Chipko movement. All overthe Uttarakhand, people witnessed a new zeal to protect forests after this event.

Afterwards Shri Sundarlal Bahuguna walked 2800 km. in order to speed up thismovement. Looking at the direction and intensity of the movement, the State Govt.finally banned felling of forests in Renigaon area and the practice of giving contractsalso came to an end with the establishment of the U.P. Forest Development Corporation.The Chipko movement got national publicity.

The demand of the Chipko movement activists to declare the forests of theHimalayan region as protected area was also accepted. For the next 15 years the cuttingof the green trees of the Himalayan forests was prohibited. In the second phase, theChipko movement took a creative mode in the form of speedy plantation. Due to masssupport to the Chipko movements for protection of trees, the felling of forests came toa halt. All this made possible the conservation of forests, increase in fertility of land andcontrol of hunting.

2.5 The Silent valley

The Silent valley is a small forest area of Kerala. It is located in the Western Ghatson the South-west slopes of the Niligiri hills. Its total area is 90 Kms. It is surroundedby high hills on all sides. Due to unapproachable tracts, this area is uninhabited. Thisvalley is a treasure of unique and valuable vegetation and animals. The Kuntipooja riverflows from the centre of the Silent Valley.

The Kerala Electricity Board wants to produce hydro electricity by constructing a damon the Kuntipooja river. This proposal has given rise to much environmental debate. TheDepartment of Environment in the Central Govt. has asked the Kerala Govt. to reconsider theconstruction of the dam. A committee has been formed to look into this issue.

According to a report of this Committee the Silent Valley is the homeland ofcertain unique types of vegetation and forest animals. The equatorial rain forests of thisarea are safe only in the absence of human disturbances. The committee under thechairmanship of M.G.K. Menon has recommended that no dam should be constructed asit will do irreversible loss to the environment.

The Silent Valley was declared a national park in 1985. Due to public movement thevaluable rain forests, rarely available vegetation and animals could be protected.

2.6 C.N.G.Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a cheaper, more efficient and less polluting

energy resource, which is useful for vehicles. CNG is less polluting than diesel; keepingin mind its benefits the Delhi High Court has ordered the use of CNG in place of biofuelin buses, tempo, autorickshaw running in Delhi. Delhi Bus Transport System has thusbecome the biggest CNG run transport system in the world. Air pollution has decreased

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in Delhi after the use of CNG begun. Now-a-days the idea of using CNG for otherpurposes is under consideration.

2.7 Efforts for water conservation

A few years back the forests in Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh were ruthlesslycut. This resulted in the decreasing fertility of land, increasing soil erosion and reducingemployment opportunities. Consequently the local population was forced to migrate. Inthe year 1994 the Rajeev Gandhi Water Storage Mission was started to eliminate theproblems of draught and deforestation. This mission involves the consumer at the endpoint with the land and water conservation programme, specially stressing on hisparticipation in the on going process and in its maintenance. Under this mission stopdams and ponds were constructed for water storage on local public demand. As a resultthe quantity of available water increased, soil erosion was prevented, water becameeasily available for irrigation, plants and animals. Consequently the agriculture productsand live stock increased.

In 1999 the state Govt. made it compulsory for the Sarpanch of every Panchayatunder 'Ek Panch Ek Talab' scheme to construct at least one new pond and repair the oldone during his office of five years. Thus about 3412 ponds were rebuilt and 500 newponds were constructed in a duration of less than 15 months. One-fourth of the cost wasborne by the people.

In the year 2000 under the 'Pani Roko Abhiyan' water storage was increased bymaking small dams. This resulted in the development of 7 lacs water catchment areas.

Under the 'Gaon ka pani Gaon mein Evam khet ka pani khet mein" programme, waterwas stored in the farms by constructing hedges. This benefitted about 20,000 villages.All the above efforts of water conservation were made in Madhya Pradesh followed byother states.

Environmental conservation is the crucial need of today's human society. TheChipko movement, the Silent Valley project, use of CNG in Delhi for protection fromair pollution and water catchment and conservation efforts of Madhya Pradesh are someof the landmarks in the area of envionmental Protection.

Terms

Crop Rotation : It is a method through which the imbalance in the soil created bynutrient loss is corrected. Different crops are sown according toseason to increase the fertility of the soil.

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Recycling : Recycling means salvaging material in order to reuse them.

Organic Farming : In this type of farming artificial chemical fertilizers are not used.Instead organic forms of manures such as cow dung or greenmanures are used for growing crops.

Biofertilizer : They are the organisms which bring about enrichment of soilnutrients, such as bacteria and fungi.

Exercise

I. Choose the correct answer:

a. In modern agriculture encouragement is given to -

(i) Organic farming (ii) Use of biofertilizers

(iii) Use of biological pest control (iv) All the above.

b. Last stage of EIA is-

(i) Comprehensive Environmental Assessment

(ii) Study of critical aspects

(iii) Rapid Environment Assessment (iv) Risk analysis.

c. In India EIA is the responsibility of-

(i) Ministry of Environment and forest (ii) Ministry of Defense

(iii) Ministry of Tourism (iv) Ministry of Agriculture

d. Chipko Movement was started in

(i) Karnataka (ii) Eastern India

(iii) UttaraKhand (iv) Kerala

e. First of all the use of CNG in India was started in

(i) Mumbai (ii) Delhi

(iii) Kolkata (iv) Chennai

II. Fill in the blanks :

1. Silent valley is a small forest area of ................... .

2. The chipko movement was started in .................. .

Very short answer type questions

1. What is the meaning of environmental conservation? Explain.

2. What do you understand by Environmental Impact Assessment?

3. Which ministry in India is responsible for making EIA?

4. What is modern farming?

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5. What do you understand by organic farming?

6. Name three stages of EIA.

7. Why do we need envionmental conservation?

Short answer type questions

1. What is the Chipko movement? What are its basic elements?

2. To fulfil which important objectives is environmental conservation necessary?Explain.

3. What is the role of EIA? What are the basic contents for preparing EIS?Describe.

4. What is the meaning of CNG? In which field its use is maximum in India?

Long answer type questions

1. What is the meaning of the Chipko movement? How was it started and whatwere the reasons of its international fame?

2. Write a short note on the Silent Valley.

3. Describe in detail the efforts for water conservation in Madhya Pradesh.

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India : Location and Physical Divisions

�We will study

3.1 India - Geographical

Location and Extent

3.2 India - Administrative

units

3.3 India -Physical

Divisions

3.1 India-Geographical Location andExtent

India is one of the oldest countries of the world.When the western countries were still at the preliminarystage of development, the culture of this country was atits peak. India is also known as Aryavarta, Hindustan andBharat. India is developing rapidly after Independence. Itis the world's largest democracy. From the point of viewof economy and military power also, India has estab-lished its position as a rising power. The geographical

situation of India gives it a marked advantage for international trade.

Location : See the location of India in the given map of the world. You will findthat India is situated in the Northern Hemisphere in the southern part of the continent-Asia. Towards its south lies the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal is in the east and theArabian sea is in the west.

The latitudinal extent of the main land of India is 8°4' North to 37°6' North andthe longitudinal extent is from 68°7' East to 97°25' East. The tropic of Cancer (23°30'N)

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divides the country into almost two equal parts. 82°30'E is the standard meridian forIndian Standard Time. The standard time for the country is calculated from the standardmeridian. See the location and extent of India from the map and find out which of thestates does the standard meridian pass through. Also find out through which states doesthe tropic of Cancer pass. Apart from the main land Andaman Nicobar Islands in the Bayof Bengal and the Lakshdweep in the Arabian Sea are also part of India.

● Tropic of Cancer divides the country into almost two equal parts.

● Less area of India is situated on the eastern part of the standard meridian.

● The western most state of the country is Gujarat and the eastern most stateis Arunachal Pradesh.

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● The northern most state of India is Jammu and Kashmir and the southernmost state is Tamil Nadu.

● The extreme southern point of India is Indira point located in the Andmanand Nicobar Islands.

In the given map of India see the location of the neighbouring countries of India.India is bounded by Pakistan and Afghanistan in the north-west, China, Nepal and Bhutanin the north, Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east and Sri Lanka in the south. Palk Straitis between India and Sri Lanka.

Coastal boundaries of India

Areawise, India is the seventh largest country in the world. 2.42% area of the worldis in India. Find out the East-West and North-South extent from the location map of

India. India covers an area of 32,87,263 Km2.

● India is a union of States, it has 28 States and 7 Union territories.

● The Capital of India is New Delhi.

● Areawise Rajasthan is the largest and Goa is the smallest state in thecountry.

● Andaman and Nicobar group of island is the largest and Lakshadweepisland is the smallest Union territory of India.

● Pondicherry is a Union territory, some areas of which are situated on theeastern coast and some areas on the western coast.

● The seven states of the North-East are known as 'The Seven Sisters'.

● There are 593 districts in India. The largest district is Kachchh (Gujarat)and the smallest district is Mahe (Pondicherry).

● There are 5470 Tehsils /Talukas in the country.

● There are 6,38,588 villages (including uninhabited villages) in the country.

Administratively India is divided into 28 states and 7 union territories. Prepare alist of States and Union territories of India from the given political map of India. NewDelhi is the capital of India.

3.3 Physiographic Divisions of India

India is a country of diverse surface features. Every type of surface features likemountains, plateau, plains, river valleys, deserts and Islands is found in our country. Onthe basis of these surface features, gifted by nature, India can be divided into thefollowing physiographic regions-

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1. The Northern Mountains

2. The Great Northern Plains

3. The Peninsular Plateau

4. The Coastal Region

5. Islands

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1. The Northern Mountains

Extending along the northern boundary of India, the Himalayas are the highestmountain range of the world, they are young folded mountains. These ranges extend fromthe Indus river in the west to the Brahmaputra in the east. The Himalayas form an arcbetween these two extremes, covering a distance of 2400 Kms. The width of theHimalayas varies from 400 Km. in Kashmir to 150 Km. in Arunachal Pradesh. On thebasis of extent and height the Himalayas can be divided into three parts.

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(i) The Greater Himalayas or the Inner Himalayas- The northern most rangesare known as the Greater Himalayas or Inner- Himalayas or Himadri. Thisrange has all the highest peaks with an average height of 6000 metres. Thecore of these ranges is made up of granite. This range is always covered with

snow and many glaciers flow in this region. Mt. Everest, the highest peak inthe world (8848 mtrs.) is located in Nepal. All the main peaks of India likeKanchenjunga (8598 metres), Nanga Parbat, Nandadevi, Namcha Barwa etc.belong to this range. Locate these mountain ranges in the given map.

(ii) The Middle Himalayas or the Himachal - Parallel and to the South ofthe Greater Himalayas lie the ranges known as the Middle Himalaya orHimachal. They are composed of highly compressed metamorphic andsedimentary rocks. Slate and quartzite are the main rocks. The height of thesemountains varies between 3700 metres to 4500 metres and the average widthis 50 Km. The Kashmir valley and the Kangra and Kullu valleys of Himachalare situated in these ranges. Pirpanjal and Dhauladhar are important ranges ofthis area . Hill stations like Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital and Darjeeling belongto Middle Himalayas.

(iii) Shiwalik Ranges - Shiwalik ranges are the southern-most ranges of theHimalayas. Locate these ranges in the given map of the Himalayas. The altitude

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of these ranges is 900 to 1100 metres with the width ranging from 10 to 50Km. This range is made up of sedimentary rocks. The valleys of this region arecovered with a thick layer of Alluvial soil and unconsolidated river deposits. Inbetween the middle Himalayas and Shiwaliks are the flat bottom longitudinalvalleys termed as 'Duns', such as in Dehrad Dun, Kothri Dun and Patli Dun.

● The Himalayas are also known as Punjab Himalaya (From Indus river toSatluj river), Kumaon Himalaya ( from Satluj to Kali river) NepalHimalaya ( from Kali river to Tista river) and Assam Himalaya( from Tista river to Brahmaputra river) on the basis of regions.

● There are some important passes in the Himalayas, such as the Karakoram( Jammu and Kashmir), Shipkila (Himachal Pradesh), Nathula (Sikkim,and Bomdila (Arunachal Pradesh) etc.

The Himalayan mountains protect us from the cold blizzards of central Asia.Himalayan mountains are of great importance due to the fact that they have perennialrivers, wild life and forest resources rich in medicines, scenic beauty, crops andproduction of electricity. They are a store house of mineral resources.

2. The Great Northern Plains

The Northern Plains of India are made up of the deposition of fine silt by three

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main river systems which are those of the Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and theirtributaries. It is also known as the plains of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. This isapproximately 3,200 Km long and 150 to 300 Km. wide. It is almost a flat plain withlittle relief. The deep fertile soil of this region, sufficient water and favourable climateare very helpful in the development of agriculture. It is a densely populated area. It canbe divided into three parts -1 Western Plains. 2. Central Plains 3. Eastern Plains.

The Western Plains- It extends in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. It slopes fromNorth-East to South-West. Its western part is a desert known as The Thar desert. Luni isthe main river here. Satluj, Beas and Ravi rivers flow in the western side of Yamuna. Itis a very fertile land and in Punjab it is known as Khadar .

Central Plains - It stretches from the Yamuna river to Bangladesh covering adistance of about 1400 Km. It is known as the Ganga plain. Its slope is from West toEast. The regions where the flood water reaches every year is known as 'Khadar' andwhere it does not reach is known as 'Bangar'. The foothill region of the Himalayas isknown as the 'Tarai'. The soil of this region is known as Alluvial soil.

Bangar Land Khadar Land

1. It is the upland of the Northern 1. It is the lowland of the NorthernPlains made by older deposition. plains made by the newer alluvium.Pebbles are also found here.

2. Flood water does not reach here. 2. This land is submerged in floodwater.

3. Water level is deep. 3. Underground water level is high.

4. It extends mainly in Punjab and . 4. It extends in eastern Uttarthe plains of Uttar Pradesh Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal.

Eastern Plains - This plain is 650 Km. long and 100 Km. wide. It is also knownas the Brahmaputra Plain. It slopes from North -East to South-West.

The Central plain covers approximately one fourth area of India which supports45% population of the country. This plain is made up of the alluvial soil of the Indus, theSatluj, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers has irrigation facilities, therefore, it iscalled the ‘gift’ of the Himalaya. The Northern plain is agriculturally important. it isdensely populated. It possesses a network of canals, roads and railways. This plain hasbeen the birth place of civilization. Several centres of pilgrimage like Amritsar,Kurukshetra, Mathura, Vrindavan, Prayag, Kashi, Gaya, Garhmukteshwar etc. are situatedin these plains.3. The Peninsular Plateau

It is a part of the oldest landmass- the Gondwana land. Its average height from the

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sea level is 600 to 900 metres. It is surrounded by seas on three sides and by landmasson one side so it is also known as the Peninsular plateau. It is a triangular plateau withits base in the north, from Delhi and Rajmahal hills to the northern plain. It is borderedby the Eastern Ghats in the east and by the Western Ghats in the west and Kanyakumariis at the southern tip. Areawise, the peninsular plateau is the largest physiographicdivision of the country. The peninsular plateau is subdivided into two parts, the CentralHighlands and the Deccan Plateau.

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The Central Highlands : The Northern part of the Peninsular Plateau comprisesof plateaus, uncovered mountain ranges and low mountains. It is made up of hard igneousrocks. In the north-west it is flanked by the Aravallis which are very old fold mountains.On the southern boundary of the central Highlands lies the Vindhyachal Mountains andit continues as the Kaimur range eastward. The Malwa Plateau lies in between Amrawatiand Vindhyachal mountains.

This plateau is drained by the Betwa, the Parvati, the Kali Sindh, the Chambal andthe Mahi. The eastern part of the Central Highlands is known as the Bundelkhand. TheBaghelkhand plateau is situated in the east of Kaimur and Bhander hills. In the centralpart of the Highlands, Vindhyachal and Kaimur hills form an escarpment between thevalleys of the Narmada and Son rivers, towards the east of the Son river. The ChotaNagpur plateau of Jharkhand is also a part of this region. This plateau is drained by theMahanadi, the Son, the Subarnarekha and the Damodar. It is rich in minerals.

The Deccan Plateau - The Deccan plateau extends from the Satpura, Mahadevand Maikal hills in the north to the southern tip of the peninsula. The north-western partof the plateau is mainly made up of volcanic deposits. The western Ghats, form thewestern edge of the Deccan plateau, which runs discontinuously from north to southalmost parallel to the Arabian Sea. In Maharashtra and Karnataka they are called theSahyadri. The Ghats are crossed by three gaps known as Thalghat, Bhorghat and Palghat.They are called the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu and along Kerala and Tamil Nadu border theyare known as the Annamalai and the Cardamom Hills. The Palghat gap separates theNilgiri and the cardamom Hills. The Palni Hills and the Cardamom Hills are branches ofAnaimalai Hills. The highest peak of Southern India, the Anai Mudi (2695 metres) is inPalni Hills. The Eastern Ghat is 800 Km.long. Its highest peak is Mahendragiri. Gneissrocks are mainly found here.

The Peninsular plateau is made up of old rocks so it is rich in minerals.Gold is found in Karnataka, Diamond, Marble, limestone and Manganese inMadhya Pradesh, coal in West Bengal and Iron is found in Bihar and Orissa.Maharashtra is famous for growing cotton because of the black cotton soil.The South-Western Peninsular Plateau is known for the production of spices,tea and Coffee. This region has the potential of generating hydro-electricity.Several hill resorts like Ootacamund, Pachmarhi and Mahabaleshwar arelocated in the plateau region.

5. Coastal Plains

The Peninslar Plateau of India from Kutch to Orissa is flanked by a narrow stripof coastal lowlands or plains. Due to difference in their formation, this coastal plain isdivided into two parts- The West Coastal plain and the East Coastal Plain.

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The West Coastal Plain extends from Gujarat to Kerala along the Arabian Sea.These plains are narrow and are known as Konkan in the north and Malabar in the southof Goa. The maximum width here is 40 Km. Here the rivers are small and fast flowing.This region has very few major rivers like the Narmada and the Tapi. The rivers of theWest Coast form a tidal mouth. The coastal plains of Kutch and Gujarat are arid.

The East coastal plain extends in the delta region of rivers Mahanadi, Godavari,Krishna and Kaveri flowing in the Bay of Bengal. Fertile alluvial soil is found here.Chilka, Koleru and Pullicat lakes are situated on this coast. The northern part of the Eastcoast is known as the Northern Circars and its Southern part is called the Coromandelcoast.

West Coastal Plains East Coastal Plains

1. They extend along the Arabian Coast. 1. They extend along the Bay of Bengal.

2. These plains are narrow. 2. These plains are wider.

3. They are formed due to small but 3. They are formed due to the deposi-fast flowing rivers. tion by the rivers Mahanadi,

Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.

4. Deltas are not found on this coast. 4. Deltas are found here.

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5. Indian Islands

The origin of the In-dian Islands- Lakshadweepand Andaman Nicobar is ofdifferent types.Lakshadweep Islands, lyingopposite to the coast ofKerala in the Arabian Sea,are formed by numeroussmall Islands. These islandsare formed by the deposi-tion of the coral polyps andare known as Atolls.

The Andaman andNicobar Islands in the Bayof Bengal are bigger islandsand are more in number.They are scattered in a largearea and are far away fromthe main land. These islands are the peaks of submerged hilly ranges. Some of them areof volcanic origin. There are nearly 300 known and unknown Islands in the Andaman and

Nicobar covering an area of about 8249 Km2.

Terms

Standard Time : The Local time of the meridian 82°30' E is the standard timeof India.

Granite : Rocks formed by the slow cooling of a large intrusion ofMagma.

Metamorphic Rocks : A rock resulting from the sedimentary and igneous rockschanging their original character and appearance as a resultof extreme heat, pressure or chemical action inside theearth's crust.

Deposition : Accumulation of sediments

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Relief : Inequalities or variations in physical shapes and forms of theearth's surface.

Bangar : Old alluvium of the plains

Khadar : New alluvium of flood plains

Alluvial Plains : Plains formed due to the deposition of alluvium by a river.

Gondwana Land : The southern part of the great Precambrian landmass, Pangaea.It includes today's Africa, Australia and Antarctica.

Coral : Sedentary marine animals that live in Colonies. They arefound in clear, warm and shallow seas. A hard, calcareousrock like substance is secreted by them which is depositedand coral reefs are formed.

Submergence : Geologically, submergence means downward movement ofthe earth surface.

EXERCISE

Choose the correct Answer:

1. The standard time of India is calculated from -

(i) 72° E. longitude (ii) 80°30' W. longitude

(iii) 82°30' E. Longitude (iv) 85° E. longitude.

2. The tropic of Cancer does not pass through which state of India?

(i) Gujarat (ii) Maharashtra

(iii) Chhattisgarh (iv) Orissa.

3. The largest Union Territory of India is :

(i) Andaman Nicobar Islands (ii) Dadra and Nagar Haveli

(iii) Lakshadweep (iv) Pondicherry.

4. The Indian Peninsular Plateau is made of which type of rocks?

(i) Metamorphic (ii) Sedimentary

(iii) Oldest rock (iv) None of the above.

2. Very short answer type questions:

1. What are the different names of India?

2. What is the area of India?

3. How many states and union territories are there in India?

4. Name two neighbouring Island countries of India.

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5. Name any two lakes situated on the East Coast of India.

6. Which Islands of India are formed by corals?

7. Name two important peaks of the Himalayan range.

8. What is the West-East extent of India?

3. Short answer type questions

1. Explain the importance of the geographical location of India.

2. Describe the Great Plains of northern India.

3. Describe briefly the Southern plateau.

4. What is the importance of the Himalayas for India? Explain.

5. Differentiate between Bangar and Khadar.

6. Describe briefly the east coastal plain.

4. Long answer type questions

1. Describe the physiographic divisions of India.

2. Describe the location and extent of India.

3 Describe the Himalayan Mountain range.

4. Describe the Peninsular Plateau.

5. Write short notes on - Indian Coastal Region, Indian Islands.

5. Answer the following questions referring to the Map of India.

1. The Latitude of Northern boundary of India.

2. Name the states adjoining China.

3. Name the States through which the Tropic of Cancer passes.

4. Name the rivers which join the Bay of Bengal.

5. Name any three passes located in the Himalayas.

6. True or false :

1. Indian ocean is situated in the south of India.

2. The seven states of North-west are called "The seven Sisters'.

3. The Andman and Nicobar Islands are situated in the Arabian sea.

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7. Show the following in the outline map of India.

1. Tropic of Cancer and 82°30' E. longitude2. Union Territories - Chandigarh and Pondicherry3. Bomdila and Nathula passes4. Raipur and Bhopal5. The Narmada River and the Mahanadi6. The Himalayas and the Vindhyas

Project Work :

●●●●● Divide the class into five groups and ask them to prepare a model and givea presentation in the class on different physiographic features of India.

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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�4.1 Meaning of Drainage

System4.2 Indian drainage

system4.3 Lakes of India4.4 Adjoining seas4.5 Role of rivers in the

economy of thecountry

4.6 River pollution andcontrol

��������

India : Drainage System

We will study 4.1 Meaning of the Drainage System

The Drainage System means the river system of aparticular area. If we see a physical map we find thatsmall streams from different directions join the mainriver. This main river flows and joins a huge water bodylike a lake, a sea or an ocean.

The Amount of rainfall and topography form thedrainage system. The river and its tributaries drain thearea and form the physical features of that region. Thisis known as the drainage system or the drainage area ofthat river. Rivers form various land forms or featuresby cutting, flowing and depositing. According to thetopographical structure rivers flow in various drainage

patterns. Observing the river map of India we find that any highland like mountainsseparate two neighboring drainage basins. This high land is known as the water divide.When one river captures the water of the other river it is called river capturing.

See the drainage pattern of the rivers of India and find out the source and the mouthof the rivers.

4.2 Indian Drainage SystemThere is a difference in the drainage system of India due to its varied topography.

Indian rivers are divided into two categories.

1. Rivers of the Himalayas 2. Rivers of Peninsular India

1. Rivers of the HimalayasThe main feature of the Himalayan rivers is that they receive water throughout the

year. The rivers of this region receive water from rainfall as well as from the melting ofsnow from ice capped mountains. As these rivers flow through high mountains they formdeep valleys, gorges and waterfalls. In their mature stage deposition in the plains takesplace. They form meanders, ox-bow lakes and flood plains in their middle and lowercourse. Three large rivers originate from the Himalayas

The Indus System :

This system comprises the Indus and its tributaries. The length of the Indus river is

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about 2900 Km. It rises in Tibet near Mansarovar and flows towards the west forming abeautiful 500 metre deep gorge in the Laddakh district of Jammu and Kashmir. From hereit flows towards the Southwest, enters Pakistan and finally joins the Arabian Sea. The fivetributaries of the Indus are the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj. This

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region of five rivers is known as the Punjab. The water of these rivers is used in Punjab,Haryana and the South Western part of Rajasthan for irrigation.

The Ganges System :

The length of river Ganga is more than 2500 Km. Its source is near the Gangotri. TheGanga enters the plains near Haridwar. Its main tributaries are the Yamuna, the Ghaghra, theGandak and the Kosi. These rivers form a fertile flood plain. They form meanders and ox-bow lakes. Near Ambala a water divide separates the Ganga and the Indus drainage systems.

The Ganga receives some of its tributaries like the Chambal, the Ken, the Betwa,the Son and the Damodar form the Peninsular Plateau. Big dams have been built on theserivers which are used for hydroelectricity and irrigation. Flowing southward it forms adelta and finally joins the Bay of Bengal. The main stream of the Ganges entersBangladesh and when it joins the Brahmaputra river it is called the Meghana.

The Brahmaputra System :

It rises near the Mansarovar Lake and the Kailash mountains. It flows parallel to theHimalayas and enters Arunachal Pradesh. In India it flows for 1400 Km. Its tributariesinclude Dibang, Luhit, Dhansiri, Kalang etc. It is heavily laden with silt and oftenbecomes sluggish. It is notorious for its annual floods due to heavy rainfall. The rivercourse often shifts during floods. River islands are also formed. It is known as Tsangpoin Tibet, Brahmaputra in India and Padma and Meghana in Bangladesh. It forms a largedelta and finally drains into the Bay of Bengal.

2. Rivers of Peninsular IndiaThe rivers of Peninsular India are seasonal. They flow from a dry area. Their length is also

less than those that originate from the Himalayas. They do not form plains. The main waterdivides in Peninsular India are the Western Ghats which extend north-south near the westerncoast. Rivers of Peninsular India like the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveriflow eastward and drain into the Bay of Bengal. They form deltas. The rivers flowing into theWestern Ghats are small. The Narmada and the Tapi are the two large westward flowing rivers.They flow in a rift valley and forming a tidal mouth where these joins the Arabian Sea.

The Narmada

It rises from the Amarkantak plateau in Madhya Pradesh, flowing1312 Km. through arift valley and finally drains into the Arabian Sea. It drains Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. Itforms "Dhuandhar" falls in the marble rocks of Bhedaghat near Jabalpur. Its tributaries arevery small.

The Tapi :

It rises near Multai in Betul district in the Satpura ranges of Madhya Pradesh, It is724 kms. long. It flows in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat and finally reaches

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the Gulf of Cambay.

The Godavari

It rises from the western Ghats near Nasik and flows for 1500 Km. in Orissa andAndhra Pradesh and drains in the Bay of Bengal. Wardha, Manjra, Venganga and Pengangaare its tributaries. It is the largest river system of Peninsular India. Due to its large areait is also called Dakshin Ganga.

The Mahanadi

It rises in Sihawa a highland of Chhattisgarh. It is 858 Km. long. Its drainage basin liesin Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa. Hirakund Dam is built on this river.

The Krishna

It rises in Maharashtra near Mahabaleshwar. It is 1400 Km. long. It flows inMaharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Koyna, Panchganga, Malprabha, Ghatprabha, Bhima, Musi and Tungbhadra are its major tributaries. Almati and Nagarjun SagarDams are built on this river.

The Kaveri

It rises in the Brahmagiri hills in Coorg district. It is 760 Km. long. Hemavati,Amaravati, Bhavani are its tributaries. The main waterfall on this river is Shivasamudramwaterfall. The water of this river is used for hydroelectricity and irrigation.

Rivers of Northern and Southern India

Rivers of Northern India Rivers of Southern India1. The rivers of Northern India have 1. The rivers of the Southern India have

their origin in the Himalayas and the their origin in the Western Ghats,Northern slopes of the Peninsular India. Satpura and Peninsular Plateau.

2. The waterfalls are less in number. 2. Waterfalls are more in number.3. They are navigable. 3. They are Not navigable.4. These rivers form deep valleys. 4. They flow in broad valleys.5. These rivers form meanders. 5. Meanders are not formed.

the river courses often shift.6. Receive water from ice and snow. 6. The flow of water depends only on

Monsoon rainfall.

4.3 Lakes of IndiaA Lake is an accumulation of water lying in a depression in the earth's surface.

Lakes are formed due to various reasons. The Amount of salt dissolved in water makesthe lake water salty or fresh. Artificial lakes are also built by constructing dams onrivers. Lakes are important for tourism, fish farming, formation of salt etc.

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Some important lakes of India

Wular lake is the glacial lake of Kashmir. There are a few lakes in South India likethe Lonar in Buldhana district of Maharashtra, the Chilka in Orissa, the Koleru in AndhraPradesh and the Pullicat in Tamil Nadu. Lakes formed due to glacial erosion in UttraKhand are Nainital, Bhimtal and Rakshastal etc. The Sambhar Lake of Rajasthan isfamous as a salt-water lake. Prepare a list of rivers and dams from the map.

4.4 Adjoining seasThe Indian Peninsula is surrounded by seas on three sides. To its south lies the Indian

Ocean, the Arabian sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal in the east. The Andaman Sea isin the east of Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The Gulf of Mannar separates India and SriLanka. The Gulf of Cambay and Rann of Kutch are located in the coastal part of Gujarat.

4.5 Role of Rivers in the Economy of the countryOur country has an important contribution of rivers in its economy. Rivers play an

important role in the economy of our country. Alluvial plains formed by rivers are usedfor agriculture. Rivers provide fresh drinking water. In the ancient times villages andcities were located on the banks of the rivers. Religious and cultural centres are locatedon the banks of rivers. Dams are built for hydroelectricity and irrigation.

4.6 River pollution and controlOn one hand we consider rivers as sacred and on the other hand we are polluting

them. Effluents from industries and sewage from houses are discharged in the rivers,dead animals are thrown in the rivers, all this increases pollution. Spread of WaterHyacinth also pollutes the rivers.

Rivers are the basis of our economy. Discharging industrial effluents in the riversis banned by the Govt. to overcome the problem of pollution. The water of sewage lineis purified. Rivers are cleaned. Awareness is being created regarding this problem.

TermsInland drainage : Rivers crossing the deserts get lost in the sandy surface and are

unable to reach the Sea.Lake : A water body lying in a depression in the earth's surface and

surrounded by landmass on all sides.Fault : A plane along which there has been a fracture of rock layers

leading to displacement of strata.Meanders : A loop like structure or a curve formed by the deposition work of

a river in the plains.

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Exercise:I. Choose the correct Answers:

1. River in its last stage forms-(i) Waterfall (ii) Flood plains(iii) Delta or Estuary (iv) Ox-Bow lake

2. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the rivers of Northern India?(i) Less number of Waterfalls (ii) Used for transportation(iii) Meanders are not formed(iv) Receives water fom snow and rainfall.

3. Which of the following separates India and Sri Lanka?(i) The Gulf of Cambay (ii) The Rann of Kutch(iii) The Bay of Bengal (iv) The Gulf of Mannar

4. Which of the following rivers is known as Dakshin Ganga?(i) The Narmada (ii) The Krishna(iii) The Kaveri (iv) The Godavari

5. Which states are drained by river Krishna?(i) Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh(ii) Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh.(iii) Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu(iv) Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisagrh, Orissa.

II. Fill in the blanks :1. The state of five rivers is known as ...................... .2. The river Ganga rises from ............. glacier.3. The Narmada rises from the ........... plateau in Madhya Pradesh.4. Hirakund Dam is built on the river ............................... .5. Nagarjun Sagar Dam is built on the river ......................... .

Very short answer type questions1. What do you mean by a Drainage System?2. What do you mean by River capturing?3. Name four tributaries of river Ganga.4. Name five tributaries of river Indus.5. What are the different names of river Brahmaputra in Bangladesh?6. Name five major lakes of India.7. Name two rivers which drain in the Arabian Sea.8. Which place is known as the region of five rivers?

Short answer type questions1. Explain the Indus river system.2. Describe the characteristics of the rivers of Northern India.

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3. How do rivers affect the economy? Explain.4. Explain the location of adjoining seas of India.5. What is river pollution? How could river pollution be prevented?

Long answer type questions1. Describe the drainage system of Northern India.2. Compare the rivers of Northern and Southern India.3. What is the importance of rivers in the economy? Explain.

Questions related to skill DevelopmentShow the following in the outline map of India(i) The Nilgiri Mountains (ii) The Narmada River (iii) The Sardar Sarovar Dam(iv) The Krishna River (v) The Hirakud Dam

or (i) The Himalayan Mountain (ii) The Satpura Ranges (iii) The Ganga drainage system

(iv) The Chambal river (v) The Gandhi Sagar Dam

Project work● The Students should prepare a model of a river originating from the Himalayas.

● Prepare a model or chart of dams/Canals or different projects made by man onthe rivers and give a classroom presentation.

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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�

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India : Climate

We Will Study5.1 Meaning of weather and

climate5.2 Factors affecting cli-

mate of India5.3 Monsoon - Meaning,

origin and characteris-tics

5.4 Distribution of tem-perature and rainfall

5.5 Effect of climate onhuman life

In the geographical study of a place, countryor a region the study of climate is of greatsignificance. Climate not only affect the land,soil, vegetation, agriculture and animals of thatplace but also help in the economic, social,religious and cultural activities of the humanbeings. In this way climate is the most potentelement out of all elements of geographicalenvironment.

5.1 Meaning of weather and climate

Weather is the study of the atmosphericconditions like temperature, pressure, wind,humidity and rainfall over a short period of time

or at a specific time at a particular place. These atmospheric conditions are called theelements of weather and climate. These elements are not stable, they change from placeto place and time to time. So, the total atmospheric conditions of a place for a shortperiod of time (days or weeks) is known as weather whereas climate is the sum total ofthe atmospheric conditions for a long period of time. In other words, the averageweather conditions, over a long period of time of a particular place are known as climate.India has a monsoon type of climate. The typical geographical location and vast area ofIndia is responsible for a great diversity of climatic conditions.

5.2 Factors affecting climate of India

Factors affecting climate of India are as follows

(1) Latitude: Latitudinal location of India plays an important role in affectingits climate. India is situated in the northern hemisphere to the south of thecontinent of Asia. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the centre of thecountry. Due to this specific location, its southern part has a tropical climateand the northern part has a continental type of climate.

(2) Distance from the sea : The Tropic of Cancer divides India into twozones - the tropical and the sub-tropical zone but the effect of the distancefrom the sea is very clearly seen on the distribution of temperature in Indiathat is why the northern plains have a continental type of climate.

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(3) Relief features : The relief features of the country influence thetemperatures as well as the rainfall. The Himalayas on the northern boundaryof the country extending from east to west protect India from the cold breezecoming fom the North in the winter season. They intercept the moisturebearing monsoon winds and help in precipitation.

(4) Distribution of water and land : Peninsular India is surrounded by season three sides. The bay of Bengal is in the east, the Arabian Sea in the westand the Indian Ocean in the south. India is a part of the Asian continent. Duringsummers the northwestern plains of India get very heated and a centre of lowpressure is established here. This low-pressure area attracts the winds comingfrom the Indian Ocean. During winters this area becomes colder and a centreof high pressure develops here and wind starts blowing from land to sea. Inother words these land breezes and sea breeze are the monsoon winds whichinfluence the climate of India. Rainfall occurs due to the winds coming fromthe sea.

(5) Jet streams blowing in the upper atmosphere : The climate of Indiais also affected by the movement of the jet streams blowing in the upperatmosphere. A westerly jet stream blows above northern India in winterseason but in the rainy season it moves northwards above the Tibetian plateau.Easterly jet stream develops at about 15° N latitude. The nature of these jetstreams is responsible for the summer monsoon. The shifting of jet streamstowards north and south is the cause of uncertainity and irregularity of thesouthwest monsoon in India.

(6) Monsoon winds : India lies in the belt of trade winds but the effect ofthe monsoon winds is seen on its climate. In our country in the summerseason these winds blow from the sea to the landmass and in winter seasonfrom landmass to sea. This change in monsoon winds changes the weather andseasons in India.

5.3 Monsoon - Meaning, origin and characteristicsIndia possesses a monsoon type of climate. To understand the monsoon type of

climate it is necessary to understand the meaning of monsoon. Monsoon means thewinds blowing on the earth's surface which change their direction in summer and winterseason. The word monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word "Mausim" whichmeans 'season' or blowing of wind according to season. This word was first of all usedfor winds blowing on the Arabian Sea, which blow from North -East for six months andfrom South-West for the next six months. On the basis of this wind, the regions whichchange their direction seasonally are known as the Monsoon winds. The regions wheremonsoon winds blow are called regions of monsoon climate. India also comes under thisclimatic region.

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Origin of Monsoon winds

Monsoon winds are related to the weather because they blow from land to sea forsix months and from sea to land for the next six months. Several concepts have been putforward to explain the origin of monsoons but the thermal concept is important.

Summer Monsoon

Winter Monsoon

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According to this concept, the monsoon winds are infact land and sea breezes on a largescale. By differential heating of the land and the sea winds blow from sea to land in thedaytime and from land to sea in the night, similarly in the summer season winds blowfrom the high pressure system on the sea to low pressure system on lands. Duringwinters, a complete reversal takes place with high pressure on the land and a lowpressure over the sea. At this time winds start blowing from land to sea. This is calledthe monsoon (see this concept in the map.)

Characteristics of Monsoon

● Monsoon winds are seasonal winds. They blow according to season.

● Seasonal winds blowing in the summer season are called the summermonsoon and winds blowing in the winter season are called the wintermonsoon.

● Due to the peninsular shape of India summer monsoon winds divide intotwo parts. The Arabian Sea monsoon and the Bay of Bengal monsoon.

● In summer season these winds blow from the south-west to the North-east and in winters from the North-east to the south-west in India.

● These winds are hot and humid in summer season as they blow fom seato land whereas in winters they are cold and dry because they blow fromland to sea.

● Rainfall in India is due to monsoon winds. The maximum amount ofrainfall is received from the Southwest monsoon winds.

● Rainfall received from Indian monsoon is uncertain many times. Thetime of monsoon and amount of rainfall vary. Rainfall is the main sourceof irrigation in India. So the amount of rainfall affects agriculture.

5.4 Distribution of temperature and Rainfall

There is a complete reversal in the direction of the monsoon winds, as a result ofwhich a cycle of season goes on. Therefore on the basis of monsoon and rainfall fourseasons are recognised in India.

A. The North East monsoon season

(1) Winter season - December to February

(2) Summer Season _ March to May

B. The South West monsoon season.

(1) Rainy season - June to September

(2) Retreating Monsoon season - October to November

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Winter season :

This season starts from December. In thisseason the temperature goes on decreasing as onegoes from the from south to the North. See thetemperature of January in the given TemperatureMap of India. In January temperature in Keralaand South Tamil Nadu are around 25°c, they arebetween 10°c to 15°c in the Northern plains. Theweather is fine and delightful, borne out by thefacts such as clear skies, low temperatures andhumidity, cool breeze and rainless days. Duringthis season, Northern India experiences a slightrainfall from the Western disturbances. Thesedisturbances cause heavy snowfall in Kashmir andHimachal Pradesh. Occasionally these disturbances are followed by cold waves.

Western Cyclonic disturbances:They originate in the winterseason due to the westerly JetSteams coming fom theMediterranean Sea. The Northand northwest regions of Indiaare affected by thesedisturbances.

Tropical cyclones originatein October and November alsoapart from is the monsoonmonths and affect the coastalareas of the country.

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In the winter season the north-east monsoon absorbs moisture from the Bay ofBengal and the Coromandal coast receives rainfall. This is also called rainfall fromretreating monsoon.

Summer Season :

The Summer season is from March to May. In these three months the highesttemperatures are found in the Deccan plateau, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and North westIndia. See the temperature of July in the given Temperature Map of India. You will findthat the maximum temperatures are in the Northwest region of India.

During this time due to high temperatures a low-pressure area develops from ChotaNagpur plateau to the Thar Desert. The moisture-laden winds are attracted towards theperiphery of the trough. A sudden contact between dry and moist air masses gives rise

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to local storms of great intensity. These storms are associated with violent winds,torrential rains and even hailstorms. Pre monsoon showers are a common phenomenonin the peninsular plateau. Locally they are known as 'Mango showers'. They are alsoknown as 'blossom showers' in Kerala because they are beneficial to the coffeeplantation as flowering starts with these rains. Assam and Bengal receive showers withthunder and lightning, locally known as ‘Kalbaisakhi’ (Calamity of the month of Baisakh).

Rainy SeasonIn the northwestern part of India due to the rise in temperature high pressure of the

winter season is replaced by intense low pressure. This low pressure attracts winds fromthe Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The trade winds of the Southern Hemisphere jointhe winds of the southern monsoon winds and are known as the south west monsoon.Slowly the winds move from South to North and by the end of June the monsoon coversmaximum parts of the country.

There are two branches of the south west monsoon in India- (1) the Arabian Seabranch, which causes rain in maximum parts of peninsular plateau. (2) the Bay of Bengalbranch, which turns towards low pressure areas causing rainfall in the plains of theGanga. A branch of it turns eastward causing widespread rains in Northeast India,Myanmar and Thailand. The monsoon engulfs the entire country. The amount of rainfalldecreases westward in the Northern India and eastward in the peninsular plateau region.

Retreating MonsoonThe months of October and November are known for the retreating monsoons.

During this season, the trough of pressure in northwest India becomes weaker and shiftssouthward. In the first week of September the monsoon winds withdraw from Rajasthan.In November the winds are above Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. By mid December themonsoon retires completely from the peninsular plateau. Tamil Nadu receives sufficientrainfall from the retreating monsoon whereas the rest of India remains dry.

Distribution of RainfallIndia receives 75% of its total rainfall from southwest monsoon in the rainy

Season, 10% in summer season, 13% during the retreating monsoons and 2% in thewinter season. The average annual rainfall of India is 105 cms, but the spatial distributionis highly uneven. On the basis of the total annual rainfall India can be divided into fourregions. (See these regions in the map of Average Annual Rainfall)

●●●●● Areas of Very High Rainfall : This includes the Western Ghats (Kerala,Goa, Coastal Karnataka and coastal Maharashtra) Assam, Meghalaya andEastern Himalayas. Here the rainfall is above 200cms.

●●●●● Areas of High Rainfall : This includes Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, EasternUtter Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The annual average rainfall is

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100 to 200 cms.

●●●●● Areas of Normal Rainfall : This region includes Madhya Pradesh, WesternUttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab andHaryana. Average rainfall is 50 cm to 100cms. Uncertainty of rainfall resultsin drought.

●●●●● Areas of Low Rainfall : Rajasthan, Laddakh plateau, rain shadow area ofSouthern plateau are included in this area, where average annual rainfall is lessthan 50 cms.

5.5 Effect of climate on Human life

The climate of a country affects its socio-economic life. The effect of diversitiesof climatic conditions can be seen in our country also. Monsoon is said to be the center

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of Indian economic life.

1. Due to the climates of India. agriculture is normally possible throughout the year.Here temperatures are suitable throughout the year for various crops. Agricultureis possible even in the months of May and June with the help of irrigation facilities.

2. Amount of monsoon rainfall is sufficient for agriculture.

3. Different climates create a favourable environment for the production of variouscrops. The climate of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh is suitable for wheat, the climaticconditions of West Bengal for Jute and rice and the climatic conditions of MadhyaPradesh and Maharashtra are favorable for cotton. So, the crops of both the tropicaland the temperate regions are sown in the country.

4. The maximum rainfall is in the months of June, July and August, which is beneficialfor early ripening of crops like jawar, bajra, maize.

5. Fodder is also available due to rains which helps in cattle rearing.

6. The country remains dry or there are no rains for a long period of the year duringwhich the grasses dry up resulting in scarcity of fodder. That is why there are noevergreen pastures or grazing land in the country.

7. Sultry hot weather is followed by widespead rains, which gives rise to manydiseases. Water is stored in the pots and ponds, which become the birthplace ofmosquitoes and these spread diseases.

8. The uncertainty of rainfall largely affects the agriculture.

9. Drought and famine are the serious problems of Indian farmers. Heavy rainfallsome times causes floods.

10. Hot and humid climate in the summer season affects health badly. It makes us lazyand affects the efficiency and working capacity.

11. "Loo" hot winds blowing in the summer season makes outdoor life impossible, dueto which working hours in our country are less than in other developing countries.

12. Good quantity of crops is produced when adequate amount of rain is received at theproper time, but if monsoon is late and the amount of rainfall is less it adverselyaffects agriculture. That is why Indian agriculture is said to be a ‘gamble inmonsoon’ because in many areas agriculture depends on monsoon.

13. Climatic diversities result in diversity in the forest resources, animal resources,industries, transport and human life. These are the important elements of oureconomic life.

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Terms

Tropical Climate : Average temperature is above 18°c.

Continental type of climate: A wide annual range of temperature with warm summers,cold winters and low relative humidity. The phenomenonis called continentality.

Jet stream : A high altitude wind blowing at approximately 7.5-15Km. above the earth's surface. It has a high velocity. Jetsteams occur in various latitudes. However, one of themost important is that associated with the mid latitudefrontal zone with a strong, though discontinuous flowfrom west to east along the junction between polar andtropical air. They cause western cyclonic disturbancesin north and northwest India.

Trade winds : Winds that blow from the area of high pressure in thetropics to the low pressure area that is a permanentfeature in the equatorial region.

Rain shadow Area : A comparatively dry area on the leeward side of thehighland which stands in the path of rain bearing clouds.

Cyclone : A low pressure system in the lower atmosphere wherewinds tend to converge towards the centre of lowpressure. Mid-latitudinal cyclones are calledDepressions.

ExerciseI. Choose the correct answer-

1. The time of the south west monsoon in India is-

(i) October to November (ii) June to September

(iii) March to May (iv) December to February

2. Which state receives the lowest rainfall due to southwest monsoon?

(i) Rajasthan (ii) Karnataka

(iii) Tamilnadu (iv) Punjab

3. Coromandal coast in India receives maximum rainfall in-

(i) January - February (ii) June - September

(iii) March -May (iv) October - November

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4. Maximum variation in the amount of rainfall is found in

(i) Maharashtra (ii) Assam

(iii) Andhra Pradesh (iv) Rajasthan

II. Very short answer type questions :1. what do you mean by chimate?

2. Which type of climate region is India called?

3. What is the meaning of "Monsoon"?

4. What are the main branches of monson?

III. Match the following :A B

1. Jet stream 1. Hot winds of the summer season

2. Assam 2. The region which receives rainfall from retreating monsoon

3. Tamilnadu 3. Area of less than 50 c.m. rainfall

4. Rain shadow area 4. Area of very high rainfall

5. Loo 5. High wind blowing at 270 to 300 north latitude.

Very short answer type questions

(1) How do the relief features of India affect the climate?

(2) Why is the climate of northern India uneven?

(3) Why does the Tamil Nadu coast receive rainfall in the winter season?

(4) Which are the high rainfall areas of India?

(5) Why is Indian agriculture called a gamble of monsoon?

(6) How does climate affect health?

(7) How do monsoon winds originate?

Long answer type questions

(1) Explain the factors influencing the Indian climate.

(2) Explain the main characteristics of the monsoon and describe the differentseasons.

(3) Show the distribution of rainfall in the map of India and name the differentareas.

(4) Describe the effect of climate on human life.

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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��������

India : Natural Vegetation and Wild Life

�We Will Study6.1 Meaning of Natural Vegetation

Plants, trees, grasses and bushes thatgrow naturally without man's interference arecalled natural vegetation. It includes forestsand vegetation. Our country is one of thetwelve countries having biodiversity.Approximately 47,000 different types of plantsare found here. So India is at the tenth placein the world and at the fourth place in Asia. In2003 the total forest area in the country was6.8 lakh kms. which was 20.55 percent of thetotal geographical area of India.

The vegetation which is basically Indianis known as endemic vegetation but plantswhich are brought from out of India are calledexotic plants. In India endemic and exotic

both types of vegetation is found. Many exotic plants have created problems for us. Theyreduce the coverage of useful vegetation and also hamper the growth of economicallyprofitable plants. Some of them such as lantana and Water Hyacinth have becomeproblematic. Lantana have spread in our forest and grazing fields and the Water hyacinthhas closed the source area of rivers and entrance of drains and ponds to a great extent.In West Bengal water hyacinth is called the terror of Bengal with reference to its growthin rivers and drains.

6.2 Factors affecting Vegetation

The geographical factors or elements affect the development of vegetation of aparticular area. The important elements are rainfall, temperature, humidity, soil, altitudeand geological structure.

1. Earth Surface : It includes relief features and nature of soil.

Land : Land affects Vegetation directly and indirectly. Mountains, Plateaus andPlains do not have the same type of Vegetation. Plains are useful for agriculture. Forestsand grasslands are found on rugged and uneven surface, which are the habitat of wild life.

6.1 The meaning of NaturalVegetation

6.2 Elements affecting Vegetation6.3 Types of forests and

distribution of wild life6.4 Medicinal Herbs6.5 Importance of forests6.6 Measures of forest

conservation6.7 Conservation of wild life6.8 Animal life, National Parks

and Sanctuaries in MadhyaPradesh

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Soil : Different types of soil are found in different places which is a base fordifferent types of vegetation. Mangrove forests are found in the delta regions of rivers.Whereas conical forests on the slopes of high mountains areas are favourable foragriculture and deciduous forests are found on plateau regions normally.

2. Climate:

Temperature : A favourable temperature is required for the germination, growthand reproduction of plants. A variety of plants grow in the tropical zone because of hightemperatures and humidity. Increase in temperature by 6°C to 9°C results in a stuntedgrowth of the plants. Temperatures are low on high mountains therefore the growthperiod of the vegetation is short.

Sunlight : Duration of sunlight at any place depends on latitude, altitude from sealevel and the season. Plants grow rapidly in the summer season because in summers theduration of day light is more. As the Southern slopes of the Himalayan mountainousregions receives more sunlight as compared to northern slopes, dense vegetation isfound here.

Rainfall : In the areas of heavy rainfall the forests are very dense with tall trees.In the areas of low rainfall dwarf trees, grasses and shrubs are found sparsely.

In desert areas plants have long roots. To prevent the loss of moisture due totranspiration some plants have wax-coated and thorny leaves. Vegetation of the Thardesert is thorny due to scanty water.

6.3 Types of forests and distribution of wild life

A large area covered by plantsand shrubs is called a forest. Wecan study Indian forests byclassifying them from theadministrative viewpoint and on thebasis of nature.

1. Administrativeclassification : Forests areclassified in three categories fromthe administrative viewpoint.

Reserved forests: The forestwhich are permanently reserved fortimber or other forest produce;agriculture and grazing is strictlybanned, such forests are called

Forest Area in India� From the point of view of the total forested area,

North East India ranks first. 70% of the total areais under forest in Arunachal Pradesh. Meghalaya,Mizoram and Nagaland.

� 44% area in Sikkim and 55% in Tripura is underforests.

� More than 25% area is covered by forests inAssam, Kerela and Goa.

� 30% area is under forest in Madhya Pradesh andChhattisgarh.

� Only 9% area is under forests in West Bengal.� In Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan and Gujarat 5% area

is under forests.� Lowest forest area is in Haryana i.e. only 1.2%

of the total area.

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Reserved Forests.

Protected Forests: The forests where local inhabitants are allowed to graze theircattle and have permission for agriculture with normal restrictions is given are calledprotected forests.

Unclassified forests: The forests, which are neither reserved nor protected, areunclassified forests.

2. Natural classification: On the basis of natural classification forests areclassified into five divisions.

Tropical Evergreen Forests: These forests are of two types.

(A) Tropical wet evergreen forests: These forests thrive in areas havingannual rainfall above 300cms. and dry season is short. These forests aresimilar to equatorial type of vegetation. These forests are very dense, lengthof the trees is 60m or more. Layers of different heights can be seen in theseforests. Shrubs, climbers and creepers are found under tall trees. Grass isgenerally not found in this region. The maximum varieties of plant species arefound per unit area due to which commercial utilization is not possible. Thewood of these trees is hard and heavy, so cutting and transportation requiresmore labour. These forests do not have a distinct season of shedding ofleaves, so these forests appear to be evergreen. The main trees found here areRubber, Mahogony, Cincona, Bamboo and Palm.

(B) Tropical wet semi evergreen forests: These forests are restricted to theareas where annual rainfall is between 200 to 300 cms. So these evergreenforests are found in the Central parts of temperate moist deciduous forests.These forests are found in Meghalaya, Mizoram and Andaman and NicobarIslands. They are less dense than wet evergreen forests. The important plantshere are Rosewood, Ebony, Telsur, Champa, Jun, Gurjan, Icewood and Laurel.These forests are being destroyed due to shifting agriculture and excessiveexploitation.

Wild life of Tropical evergreen forests: Elephants, monkeys, lemur, deer andone horned rhino are mainly found in Assam and the marshy areas of westBengal. Along with these many types of birds, bats and reptiles are also foundhere.

(C) Tropical Deciduous forests: This is the largest belt of India, theseforests are also known as monsoon forests. They cover 39% of the totalforest area. (See the distribution of these forests in the vegetation map)

On the basis of availability of water these forests are classified into two parts,moist deciduous forests and dry deciduous forests. Moist deciduous forests

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are found in the area of 100 to 200 cm. rainfall in India, North-east states,foot-hills of Himalayas, Jharkhand, Western Orissa, Chhattisgarh and theeastern slopes of Western Ghats. Teak is the main species of these forests.Other trees are Bamboo, Sal, Sheesham, Chandan, Khair, Kusum, Arjun andMulberry. Trees of these forests shed their leaves during the dry season for6 to 8 weeks. To fulfill the demand of wood, these forest have been exploitedand cleared for cultivation.

The areas with 70 to 100 cms. rainfall are Dry deciduous forests. The main areas

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of these forests are Peninsular Plateau, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The maintrees are Teak, Sal, Peepal, Neem and Mango.

Wild life in Deciduous forests: Lion, Tiger, Bison, Blue bull, Wild boar, Deer,Elephant, different types of birds, Lizards, snakes and Turtles is the main wild life ofthese forest.

3. Mountainous ForestsThere is a difference in vegetation in the mountain areas due to low temperatures

and high altitudes as compared to other areas. This difference is like that of the Tropicalregion to the Tundra region. Mountainous vegetation can be divided in two parts.

(A) Peninsular mountain forests

1. On the high altitudes of the Peninsular Plateau open wavy grasslands arefound with shrubs or undeveloped forests.

2. Dense vegetation is found under tall trees in these forests. Heterotrophicplants, mosses and plants with small leaves are found in these areas.

3. Maglonia, Laurel, Elm are the common trees where as Cincona andEucalyptus were brought from foreign countries and planted here.

4. These forests are found in the Nilgiris, Palni, Annamalai, the WesternGhats, Mahabaleshwar and Satpura and Maikal ranges.

(B) Mountainous forests of Himalayan Ranges : In the Himalayan mountainousregion due to increasing altitude and decreasing temperature a difference in naturalvegetation is seen. In the Shivalik ranges, at an altitude of 1000 meters in thefoothill region, Bhabar and Tarai tropical deciduous forests are found. It is thensucceeded by temperate moist evergreen forests between 1000 and 2000 meters.These are the dense forests with tall trees. Oak and Chestnut are found on easternHimalayas and Pine on western Himalayas. At an altitude of 2000 to 3000 metersforests of Deodar, Silver fur, and Spruce are sparsely distributed. Sal is mainlyfound at low altitudes. On the slopes of the high altitude mountains, wheretemperatures are low and rainfall is less than 100cms dry temperate vegetationsimilar to that of the Mediterranean vegetation, is found. Olive, Babool and hardSavanna grass is found with Oak and Deodar trees. Alpine vegetation is foundbetween the altitude of 3000 to 4000 meters. These are less dense forests and theheight of the trees decreases towards the Snowline. At higher altitudes alpinepastures are found. Silver fur, Juniper, Birch and Pine are the main species of theseforests.

4. Mangrove forests or Tidal forestsMangrove or Tidal vegetation is found on the coastal areas of India where the tides

occur. Mangrove is a type of vegetation with submerged roots. This vegetation is found

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in the delta region of the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveririvers. Sundari is a well-known mangrove tree found in the delta region of the Ganga-Brahmaputra. Coconut, Palm and Angar trees are also found in this region.

Wild life of Mangrove forests: The Royal Bengal Tiger is famous in theseforests. Tortoise, Crocodile, Alligators and different types of snakes are also found here.

5. Tropical thorny forestsThe areas with less than 70 cm annual rainfall have thorny forests and shrubs. This

type of vegetation is found in the northwestern parts of the country. It includes Gujarat,Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and semi arid regions of Haryana. Date Palms,Babul, Cactus is the main vegetation here. These plants have long roots spread in a radialpattern in search of water. Leaves are small to reduce evaporation.

Wild life in thorny forests and Shrubs : Rats, rabbits, fox, wolf, wild asses,horses, camel, tiger and lion are found in the thorny shrubs.

Some of the marshy areas are famous for the migratory birds. A large number ofSiberian cranes can be seen in winters. Their favourite place is the Rann of Kutch. Theplace where the desert land meets the ocean, thousands of flamingoes with beautifulpinkish to scarlet plumage can be seen.

6.4 Medicinal HerbsFrom the ancient times India is famous for medicinal herbs. About 2000 plant

species are described in Ayurveda, out of which at least 500 are in continuous use. Someof the important plant species used as medicine are Sarpgandha, Tulsi, Neem, Jamun,Babul, Kachnar and Arjun etc.

Sarpgandha - To control blood pressure

Tulsi - For cough and cold.

Neem - As an antibiotic

Jamun - To improve digestion, useful in Diabetes.

Babul - Useful in boils and to increase physical strength

Kachnar - Useful in boils and Asthma.

Arjun - To control blood pressure and ear pain.

6.5 Importance of forestsForest is a national wealth. It has various uses for human beings. Forests

contribute in the economic development of the country in two ways — productionactivities and conservation activities. We have two types of benefits from the forests.Direct benefit and Indirect benefit.

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Direct benefits

They give us timber, fuel wood, fodder, raw material for small and cottageindustries, valuable minor products (fruits, flower, grass and leaves) and raw material formedicines. It is a main source of livelihood for many people.

Indirect benefits

1. Indirect benefits of forests are more important than direct benefits. Theyare an essential part of our nature and culture. They increase human values,provide spiritual strength and are the habitat of entertainment and recreation.

2. Forests affect the temperature of the air. Control the speed of wind andcontrol the climate helping rainfall.

3. Forests control floods and soil erosion by controlling the flow of rivers.

4. Forests increase the fertility of soil by adding humus formed due to thedecomposition of the leaves and branches of the trees.

5. Forests are natural habitat of birds and animals.

6. Forests are the symbols of natural beauty.

7. Forests are the source of natural balance.

6.6 Measures of forest conservation

The forest is a national wealth. Looking at the problems which have originated dueto decreasing forest resources, their conservation is very necessary. Human needs areunlimited whereas the natural resources are limited. So, efforts for afforestation arebeing encouraged by the government. The following measures have been taken for theconservation of forests-

1. The dangerous tendency of the destruction of forests should be immediatelycontrolled. The main objective of the National Forest Policy is the maintenance ofenvironmental stability and restoration of ecological balance.

2. Forest Conservation Act, 1980 is to prevent the destruction of forests and to preventuse of forest land for other purposes.

3. The main objective of social forestry and agro-forestry is to provide fuel wood andminor wooden resources to the farmers. Farmers are encouraged to do plantation.

4. Afforestation and development of waste and degraded land.

5. Reforestation in the existing forest areas.

6. Controlled cutting of forests by scientific method.

7. Establishment of Watch Towers and surveillance to prevent forest fire.

8. Ban on grazing, poaching and cutting trees and shrubs for fuel wood.

9. Controlled and limited trade of timber.

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10. Controlled Jhuming agriculture.

11. Controlling harmful insects like termites, cockroaches and gubrela.

12. Creating awareness among people regarding ago-forestry, extensive forestry,development of social forestry and forest conservation, Chipko Movement andVan Mahotsava are all included as the measures of forest conservation.

6.7 Wild Life Conservation

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India has a rich wild life. 6.5% wild life species of the world are found in India.Lion, tiger, elephant, deer, kashmir stage, leopard, rhinoceros, the great Indian bustard,ducks, crocodiles, turtles, lizards and python belong to the forests. Due to destructionof forests the existence of plants and animals is in danger and many species of wildanimals and birds are on the verge of extinction. Earlier elephants were found in thewhole country but now they are disappearing from Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. The Great Indian bustard and one horned Rhinos arealso no longer in existence. Wild animals are on the verge of extinction due to huntingby British officers, kings and princes in the past and poaching. So wild life conservationis necessary. For the protection and conservation of wild life, 89 National Parks and 449,wild life sanctuaries and many zoos have been established in the country. They cover an

area of about 1.56 lakh km2 which is 4.7% of the total geographical area of the country.See the National Parks and sanctuaries in the given map of India.

Measures for conservationOut of 5 lakh animal species of the world 75,000 are found in India. Similarly about

12,000 species and 900 sub species of birds are available in India. The Beginning of wildlife conservation was an effort of the ecologists' movement.

1. In 1972 the Wild Life Conservation Act was passed in India. This act gives protectionand preservation to endangered species of wild life and bans the trading of relatedspecies.

2. The Tiger Development Programme Project was launched in 1973. Today there are27 Tiger Reserves in 14 states of the country.

3. Crocodile Breeding and Management Project was started in 1975 to conserveCrocodiles.

4. To increase the number of elephants, the Elephant Project was launched. Economicand scientific assistance was made available for this project.

5. Project Tiger movement was started to conserve the endangered species of the Tiger.17 Tiger Reserves were established for this purpose. The natural habitat of lions inthe country is the Gir forest of Gujarat.

6. For the management and upkeep of zoos The Central Zoo Authority has beenestablished. Responsibility of 200 zoos established in India has been given to thisauthority.

7. There are 14 Biosphere Reserves set up in different regions of the country. Out ofwhich Sunderbans (West Bangal), Nanda Devi (Uttaranchal), Gulf of Mannar(Tamilnadu), Nilgiri (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamilnadu) are included in the BiosphereReserves of the world. Other Biosphere Reserves are Nakrak, Great Nicobar, Manas,Simlipal, Dihang-Dibang, Dibru-Saikhova, Augustmalai, Kanchenjunga, Pachmarhi,Achanakmar-Amarkantak. See the statewise location of the main Biosphere Reserves

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of the country in a map.

6.8 Animals, National Parks and Sanctuaries in madhya pradesh

Madhya Pradesh is rich in forest wealth. 30% of the total land is covered withforests in which a variety of wild animals are found.

National Parks

A National Park is relatively a large area where different ecosystems exist.Exploitation and acquisition could not change this region. For special scientific,educative and recreative interests plant and animal species, with their geomorphologicalsites and habitats are persevered here. Hunting, grazing and human interference aretotally banned in national parks.

Wild Life SanctuaryA wild life Sanctuary is similar to a national park, but is dedicated to protect

wild life and conserve species. Without permission hunting is restricted in a Sanctuarybut grazing and regular movement of cows and other animals is permitted. Humanactivities are allowed in a sanctuary.

Multipurpose Biosphere ReserveThese areas are reserved to preserve the biodiversity, plants, animals and

microorganisms together. These natural areas are suitable for scientific study. Humaninterference is not allowed in this area.

Black buck, Leopard, Chinkara, Monkey, Bluebull, Spotted deer, Sambhar, Tiger,Bear, Alligator, Crocodile, Turtles and the great Indian Bustard are the main wild life,animals and birds of Madhya Pradesh. National Parks and wild life Sanctuaries aredeveloped to provide safe habitat and a secure place for all the species of wild life.See Appendix No. 1 Detailed information of the wild life sanctuaries is given inAppendix No.1

National Parks of Madhya Pradesh

S.No. Name District Area Wild Animals(Sq. Km.)

1. Kanha Mandla 940.00 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,Sambhar

2. Bandhavgarh Umaria 437.00 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,Sambhar

3. Madhav Shivpuri 375.00 Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar

4. Panna Panna 543.00 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,Sambhar, Chinkara

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5. Sanjay Sidhi 467.00 Tiger, Leopard, spotted deer

6. Pench Seoni- 293.00 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,Chhindwara Sambhar

7. Satpura Hoshangabad 585.00 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,Sambhar

8. Van Vihar Bhopal 4.45 All types of animals found in state.

9. Jeevashm Mandla 0.27 Fossils of vegetation

National parks of Madhya Pradesh are shown in the above table. See the locationin the wild life Conservation Map of India.

Terms

Deciduous forests : Heavy trees which shed their leaves during a part of the year.

Bhabhar : In the foot hills of the Himalayas there is a narrow belt ofpebbles parallel to the river stream which is 8 to 16 Km.wide and is known as Bhabhar.

Tarai : Wet and marshy area near Bhabhar where dense forests anda variety of wild life exists.

Social forestry : A programme to encourage plantation in urban habited area.

Ecosystem : A system, which comprises the physical environment, and theorganisms, which live therein.

Migratory Birds : Birds coming from North Asia to India for a short period oftime are called migratory birds.

Biosphere Reserve : A protected area to preserve the genetic diversity andconservation of an ecosystem.

ExerciseChoose the correct answer.

1. State with the minimum forest area in India is-(i) Assam (ii) Rajasthan(iii) Jharkhand (iv) Haryana

2. Sundari trees are found in-(i) Tropical forests (ii) Himalayan forests(iii) Mangrove forests (iv) Tropical deciduous forests

3. Natural vegetation of Rajasthan is-

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(i) Tropical moist evergreen forests(ii) Tropical moist semi-evergreen(iii) Tropical thorny forest(iv) Alpine forests

4. Natural habitat reserved for Indian lion is -(i) Gujarat Gir forest (ii) Kaziranga forest area of Assam(iii) Sundarban of West Bengal (iv) Nilgiri forest area.

Very short answer type questions

1. What do you mean by Natural vegetation?

2. What is a forest?

3. What are Mangrove forests?

4. What is the meaning of Endemic and Exotic vegetation?

5. What is a sanctuary?

6. Classify the forests on the basis of administration.

Short answer type questions

1. What are migratory birds?

2. What is the meaning of forest conservation?

3. Describe the vegetation of the Himalayan region of India.

4. Differentiate between a National Park and a Sanctuary.

5. Distribution of plants and vegetation depend on which factors in India? Explain.

6. Differentiate between evergreen and deciduous forests.

7. Explain the chief characteristics of Tropical moist evergreen forests.

8. Describe how forests are useful to man.

9. How are indirect benefits of forests more important as compared to directbenefits? Explain.

Long answer type questions

1. Describe various types of vegetation in India.

2. Why is conservation of forest resources is necessary? Give examples of differentmeasures for their conservation.

3. Write about the different measures taken for wild life conservation.

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Map work

Show the following areas in the outline map of India.

1. Tropical evergreen forests and tidal forest

2. Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary and Silent Valley

3. Kanha Kesli and Corbett National Park

4. Nanda Devi, Nilgiri and Sundarban Biosphere Reserve

Project work

● Collect the medicinal herbs from your surroundings and prepare a list andwrite the uses of medicinal herbs.

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�We Will Study7.1 The Population of India7.2 Distribution of Population7.3 Factors affecting distribution

and density of population7.4 Population Growth in India7.5 Causes of Population Growth7.6 Measures to control

population growth7.7 Sex-ratio in India7.8 Status and distribution of

literacy in India7.9 Population policy of India

7.1 Population of India

India is the second most populous countryof the world next to China. According to thecensus of 2001 the population of India was102,70,15,247. 16% of the world populationlives here, whereas the total geographical areais only 2.41 percent of the total area of theworld. Thus, populationwise India is the secondlargest and areawise the seventh largest countryof the world. How large is India's populationcan be gauged from the fact that it is more thanthe total population of North America, SouthAmerica and Australia put together. In otherwords every sixth person of the world lives inIndia.

The first census of India was held in 1872. But, the first complete census was donein 1881 only. Since then Censuses have been held regularly every tenth year.

On 11th July 1987 the world population touched the figure of 500 crores. The 500

croreth child was born in Yugoslavia. In this reference 11th July is celebrated as worldpopulation day every year.

This huge population of our country is dependent on limited resources, whichpresents a wide range of social, economic and political challenges. Poverty andenvironmental degradation are two major problems of India. Besides the huge size,social inequality, predominantly rural structure and unequal distribution of population arethe other aspects of the problem, which are influencing the process and pace of socio-economic development. As a human resource, the population of any country becomessignificantly useful when it is of high quality. For economic development, high qualityof population is also essential along with high quantity.

7.2 Distribution of Population

The distribution of population is unequal in India. The density is more in the plainsthan in the hilly, forest and desert areas. Similarly population is found more in the fertileplains of rivers and coastal areas. The statewise distribution of population is given in

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India : Population

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Appendix No.2, on the basis of this we find many statewise inequalities.

For example, the population of the small Himalayan state of Sikkim, is only 5.4lacs. On the contrary, the population of the big state of Uttar Pradesh is 16.6 crores. Onthe whole, there are about 10 States which have more than 5 crore population each. Somestates are of low population inspite of having a large area. For e.g., Rajasthan and MadhyaPradesh both are large States areawise. More than half of the country's population livesonly in five States (U.P., Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh)

Density of Population: The ratio of population of a country or state and its per unitarea (square km). is called its density. The following formula is used to calculate thedensity of the population of a country or State.

Population of a country or StatePopulation Density = ___________________________________

Area of a country or State (in Square Km.)

In the year 2001 the population density of India was 324 persons per square km.,whereas that of the most populated country of China was 129 persons per square Km.Among the countries of the highest population density in the world Bangladesh is thefirst (with 849 persons per square km.) and Japan is the second ( with 334 persons persquare km.). India stands at the third place. Hence, the excessive pressure of populationon land is a serious problem in the way of the country's economic development. The

density is also continuously increasing. In 1921, it was only 81 persons per km2; itincreased to 117 persons in 1951 and 267 in 1991 and at present it is 324 persons.

The density of population is also unequal in India. This is evident from the fact thaton the one hand according to the census of 2001, the population density was only 13

persons per km2 in Arunachal Pradesh, whereas on the other hand, it is 9294 persons per

sq. km2 in Delhi.

On the basis of population density India can be divided into four categories. Areasof high density, medium density, normal density and low density See the statewisedistribution of population in the density map of India.

1. High Density Areas :

If we look at the population density map of India, we find that more than 501persons reside in per square km. area in Uttar Padesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Kerala.The fertile land and availability of water provide enough facilities of sustenance. In theseareas urbanization and industrialization have provided people with sufficient employmentopportunities and services.

2. Medium Density Areas :

These include areas having population density of 251 to 500 persons per sq.km.Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana,

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Tripura, Dadra and Nagar Haveli fall under this category. Developed agriculture, availabilityof minerals and industrial development are some of the reasons for high populationdensity in these areas.

3. Areas of Normal Density :

These include all those states which have a population density ranging from 101 to250 persons per sq. km. The States included in this category are M.P., Rajasthan, Orissa,Chhattisgarh, Uttaranchal, Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland. These are hilly and dissected

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semi arid, forest covered regions. Here the means of livelihood are quite limited.

4. Low density Areas :

These include Jammu and Kashmir, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Sikkim andAndaman and Nicobar Islands. Hilly areas, lack of transport facilities, under developmentof agriculture and industries are the responsible factors for low density. The means oflivelihood are very limited here. In Arunachal Pradesh, density of population is as lowas 13 persons per sq. km.

2.2 Factors affecting Distribution and Density of Population.

Following factors affect the distribution and density of population. (1) Physicalfactors (2) Socio-economic factors.

1. Physical factors : Terrain, climate, soil and minerals are the mainphysical factors. Terrain affects distribution of population the most. On the one hand,dense population is found in the plains of the Ganga - Yamuna and coastal areas, whereason the other hand in the hilly state of Arunachal Pradesh density of population is thelowest. Climatic conditions also influence density and distribution of population. Suitableclimate is helpful to the health and efficiency of man. The dry deserts of westernRajasthan and Arunachal Pradesh are sparsely populated due to bad climate. A fertile soilis ideal for agriculture. The agricultural crops are the fundamental bases of livelihoodand sustenance. Therefore, population clusters around the fertile plains of rivers.Availability of minerals and industrial development based on them has attracted populationin the mineral areas of the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Thus population has become very densein the Chota Nagpur Plateau region.

2. Socio-economic and cultural factors : Socio-economic and cultural factorsalso play an important role in the distribution and density of population. The cultural,social, historical and political factors have together raised the size and density ofpopulation in the Mumbai-Pune industrial area. Many years ago, the Mumbai area was insignificant, but after the advent of the Europeans its importance kept increasing andgradually it turned into a commercial and industrial centre. As a result, its populationincreased.

● The birth rate is calculated in terms of the number of live births per thousandpopulation per year.

● The death rate is known as the number of deaths per thousand population per yearin a given area.

● The difference between these two is called the natural growth rate per year.

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Growth rate in India (1901-2001)

Census Year Population in crores decemial growth (%)

1901 23.84 -1911 25.21 5.751921 25.13 -0.311931 27.90 11.001941 31.87 14.221951 36.11 13.311961 43.92 21.151971 54.82 24.801981 68.33 24.661991 84.63 23.872001 102.70 21.54

Today a large group of people goes to stay from one place to another and from one

country to another. This is called population migration. Population migration also affects

a country's population growth.

The growth rate of population may be positive or negative. Positive growth rate

means growth in the number of people living in an area, whereas negative growth means

the number of people living in that area declines. Find out the population growth rate in

India from the table given above and see when the growth was negative.

7.5 Causes of population Growth

In India causes of population growth are as follows -

1. Birth rate and death rate : During 1911 to 1921 birth rate and death rate

were 48.1 and 47.2 respectively, i.e. both were quite high. From 1921 to 1951 ever

though the birth rate decreased slowly, the death rate also decreased rapidly. Between

1991 and 2001 the difference between the two increased to 17.4 resulting in continuous

growth of population. The cause of decline in death rate was because of the increase in

health facilities and adequate facilities of livelihood.

2. Increase in life expectancy : The difference between birth rate and death

rate is called the natural growth rate. The average age of life is known as life expectancy.

In our country, life expectancy (average age) was 50 years in 1921 which increased to

62 years in 1991. Hence due to longevity, population kept on increasing.

3. Lack of Education : Illiteracy gives birth to superstitions. Most of the

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uneducated people believe that children are the gift of God. Believing this they keep on

begeting children and hence population also increases. Desire for sons is also responsible

for many children in one family. The lower class hesitate in adopting family planning

programmes.

4. Other causes : Poverty, lack of means of entertainment, low standard of

living, child marriage etc. are other causes of population growth.

Due to the growth in population many problems have come up in our country, such

as poverty, unemployment, decline of standard of living, hunger, increasing crimes,

housing problem, transport problems, lack of medical facilities and increasing pollution

etc.

7.6 Measures to control population growth

If the population growth is not checked immediately, the pace of development will

be hampered in the future. The following measures are essential to control the growth

of population.

1. Family planning programmes should be adopted.

2. Spread of education, especially among the rural people including women,

should be increased.

3. Child marriage should be prevented.

4. Standard of living should be improved.

5. Social security should be rapidly extended.

7.7 Sex Ratio in India

Sex ratio means the number of females per thousand males. According to the

census of 2001 the sex ratio for the country is 933 (there are 933 females per thousand

males) meaning that the number of females is far less than the number of males. This

means that the sex ratio in India is adverse. When number of females is more than that

of males then the sex ratio is said to be favourable. There are wide regional disparities

in the sex ratio in India. See the map of the distribution of male-female ratio. Kerala

record a favourable sex ratio (1058) whereas in Chandigarh it is adverse (773)

The status of the sex ratio in India is shown in the table given on the next page. On

the basis of the data of the last hundred years it can be said that the sex ratio in India

has continuously been declining. The sex ratio in 1901 was 972 which has declined to

933 in 2001.

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Sex Ratio in India from 1901 to 2001

Year No. of females per thousand males1901 9721911 9641921 9551931 9501941 9451951 9461961 9411971 9301981 9341991 9272001 933

Decline in sex ratio in India may be attributed to the factors given below.

1. Literacy is low among females.

2. High maternal mortality rate.

3. Desire of male child in a male dominated society.

4. Increasing female foeticide.

5. Neglecting girl child and considering girl child a liability.

6. Dowry system in the society causes female foeticide and encouragesfemales to commit suicide.

Socio-religious superstitions and traditional beliefs are responsible for the decreasingsex ratio in our country.

7.8 Distribution and status of literacy in India

If any person who can read and write after understanding any language he/she iscalled literate. If one can read but can not write he/she is not literate. For being literateformal education is not essential. Our country is the second most populous and theseventh largest country in the world, but literacywise still she is far behind. Afterindependence we had fast development in all fields but in the field of literacy continuousefforts are still needed.

The literacy rate has increased in the last hundred years. It is evident from the tableof the status of literacy in India given on the next page that in the beginning of thecentury in 1911 the literacy rate was about 6%. After independence by 1951 it hadincreased to 18.3%. It has increased from 52.21% in 1991 to 65.38% in 2001. Thefemale literacy rate was 1.1% in 1911 which has since increased to 54.16 % in 2001.It is the outcome of the policy of the Central Government which aims at providing freeprimary education to all.

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Status of literacy in India ( In percentages)

Census Year Total literacy Male Female

1911 6.0 N.A. 1.11951 18.33 27.17 8.861961 28.30 40.40 15.351971 34.45 45.96 21.971981 43.57 56.38 29.761991 52.21 64.13 39.292001 65.38 75.85 54.16

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Disparities in literacy rates : There are wide regional disparities in the literacyrate. See the state wise distribution of literacy in the map. It varies from 47.5 % in Biharto 90.9 percent in Kerala. Kerala is closely followed by Lakshadweep (87.5 percent) andMizoram (88.4 percent). Bihar ranks last in literacy among the states and unionterritories of India.

The male female differentials are also wide. Only 54.16 percent of the females areliterate as against 75.85 percent of males. There is much difference in the literacy rateof rural and urban populations. In 2001 the literacy rate in urban areas was 79.9 percent,whereas in rural areas it was only 58.7 percent. Detailed information of state wiseliteracy in India is given in Appendix No.3

Population 2001 At a Glance

No. Area India Madhya Pradesh

1. Density of population 324 1962. Total population 1027015247 603851183. Percentage of total Urban population 27.82% 26.46%4. Percentage of total Rural population 72.18% 73.54%5. Total Literacy 65.38% 64.11%6. Male Literacy 75.85% 76.80%7. Female Literacy 54.16% 50.28%

7.9 National population policy 2000

According to the new population policy, qualitative change of life is essential forsocio-economic development. This will ensure use of man as a productive capital forsociety. The policy has three objectives:

1. Short term objective : To develop health and basic infrastructure for theextension of contraceptive measures.

2. Mid term objective : To reduce the total rate of reproduction by 2010.

3. Long Term objective : To achieve the target of a stable population forsustainable economic development by 2045.

In order to meet the above objectives following socio-demographic aims were alsodeclared under the new policy-

● To pay attention to all the needs related to basic reproduction and healthservices, supplies and basic infrastructure.

● To impart free and compulsory school education till the age of 14 years. Toreduce the number of dropouts among primary and middle standard boy andgirl students up to 20%.

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● To bring down the infant mortality rate below 100 per one lakh live births.

● To implement universal vaccination against diseases.

● To encourage late marriage among girls. To stress the importance of marriageat the age of 20 or above.

● To ensure 100% presence of trained midwives at all maternity homes.

● To find out cheaper alternatives of contraception.

● 100% registration of birth, death, marriage and conception.

● To check the spread of AIDS, encourage integration between Aids controlorganizations with regard to Reproductive Track Infection (RTI) and Veneraldiseases (VD).

● To make ample efforts for the prevention and control of infectious diseases.

● To integrate various types of Indian medicinal systems for providingreproductive and child health services at the doorstep.

● To solidly encourage the norm of a small family in order to reduce fertilityrate.

● To develop family welfare as a people oriented programme.

National Commission on population

Following the National Population Policy 2000, a National Commission onPopulation has been established. The Prime Minister is the president of this commission.Chief ministers of all states and Union territories, administrators and ministers, incharge of all related departments and central ministers, renowned demographers and therepresentatives of public health and professional organizations and non-governmentorganization are its members.

Following the National Population policy 2000, state level population commissionslike the National level population commission have also been formed. The chiefministers of the respective states are their presidents.

Terms

Census : Official enumeration of population after a fixed time interval.In our country it is conducted every ten years.

Birth Rate : The number of live births for thousand persons.

Death Rate : The number of deaths per thousand population in a year.

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Life expectancy : The average age of people calculated on the basis of specifiedparameters.

Sex Ratio : Number of women per thousand men in the population.

Population Growth Rate: It shows the rate of growth of population. The population ofthe base year is compared with the increased populationfrom the growth rate. Annual or decinneal growth rate iscalculated.

Exercise

I. Choose the correct answer

1. In which of the following periods did the growth of population increasesteadily?

(i) 1901-21 (ii) 1921-51

(iii) 1951-81 (iv) 1981-2001

2. According to 2001 census which is the most densely populated state?

(i) Uttar Pradesh (ii) Bihar

(iii) Kerala (iv) West Bengal

3. Which state has the highest percentage of literacy?

(i) Uttar Pradesh (ii) Kerala

(iii) Goa (iv) Delhi

4. Which is the most densely populated Union Territory?

(i) Chandigarh (ii) Pondicherry

(iii) Delhi (iv) Lakshadweep

II. Fill in the blanks :

a. World population day is celebrated on .................... every year.

b. Populationwise India is the................ country in the world.

c. In India the female population is ............... than male population.

III. True or False :

a. Population density is unequal in India.

b. Madhya Pradesh has the highest percentage of literacy in India.

c. The National Population policy has been decleared in the year 2000.

Very short answer type questions

1. What is Birth rate?

2. What is Death rate?

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3. What was the density of population in India in 2001?

4. What was the sex ratio in India in 2001?

5. Population wise and area wise what is the position of India in the world?

Short answer type questions

1. Write about any three problems resulting from population growth.

2. Why is the sex ratio declining in India? Give reasons.

3. What do you understand by National Population commission?

4. What do you mean by sex ratio? Explain its distribution in the country.

Long answer type questions

1. Give the main causes of population growth in India and the measures beingtaken to control it.

2. Explain with examples the factors affecting the density of population in India.

3. In how many parts can India be divided on the basis of density of population?

4. What is National Population Policy 2000?

5. What is the status of growth in literacy rate in India? Suggest ideas to increasefemale literacy.

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�We Will Study

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Map : Reading and Numbering

8.1 Meaning of Map8.2 Importance of Maps8.3 Elements of Maps8.4 Types of Maps8.5 Representation of

Relief Features8.6 Numbering and

Interpretation of atopographical sheet

8.1 Meaning of Map

In the study of Geography, maps have a specialimportance. Without maps the geographical study of acountry or a part of the earth is incomplete because amap shows pictorial features of a particular area. InGeography we not only study the physical features of theearth's surface, but also the interaction between man andnature and their effects on each other. To know thisinterrelationship understanding of maps is very essential.Maps help in understanding the physical, political andother features.

Maps can be seen in books, Atlases and on walls. These maps are two dimensional(length and breadth). We know that the earth is spherical. It has three dimensionslength, breadth and height. The surface of the earth is spherical (i.e. three dimensional)but the maps are plane or flat (i.e. two dimensional). Different projections are used torepresent the spherical surface on the plane surface. Map projection is a systematicdrawing of parallels of latitudes and meridians of longitude ( graticule) on a planepaper or cloth for the whole earth or a part of it on a certain scale. There are certainstandard signs and symbols to represent the topographical features on the map knownas conventional signs. So with the help of a scale, suitable projection and conventionalsigns and symbols the location and the description of topographic features of the earthor a part of it is represented.

A Map is a representation of selected features of the whole earth or a partof it on a plane surface, with conventional signs, drawn to a scale andprojection so that each and every point corresponds to the actual terrestrialposition.

8.2 Importance of Maps

The importance of Maps is increasing in recent times because :● Any part of the earth's surface can be studied with the help of a map.

● It is a technique of representing a fact in an interesting manner and in brief.

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● A map is a language of social science which can be understood in every country.

● A lot of information is provided by maps in a short period of time.

● A map is an authentic document to solve the boundary dispute betweentwo adjacent countries.

● Topographical maps are used in regional planning.

● Maps help in the economic development of a region by showing thelocation of the available resources on the map.

● Maps are useful for the State Reorganization Commission when theboundary of the new state, district or tehsil is marked.

● Topographical maps are most important for military purposes. At the timeof war maps are useful for soldiers.

● Maps are very useful in the Tourism Industry for showing tourist places and routes.

● Maps are also useful in other sciences like Climatology, Oceanography,Botany, Political Science, History, Geology etc.

8.3 Elements of Maps

There are certain points which are necessary in a geogrpahical mapcalled Elements of a Map Without these elements a map is incomplete andwe call it a sketch map. Elements of a map are as follows:-

Direction

A direction is indicated on a map at a suitable place with whichdifferent directions on the ground are (N,S,E,W) identified. Generally theNorth direction is represented by the alphabet 'N' or with an arrow at thetop indicating 'N' direction.Other directions are identifiedfrom the North.

Title and Sub-Title

Each map represents thephysical, political or any otherfeature of an area. Names ofthe area, title, features shownin the map and the sub title arementioned either below themap or above the map or onthe right side of the map.

Conventional Signs

NDirectionSymbol

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Conventional Signs

The topographical features like mountains, Plateaus, plains, rivers and man madestructures like settlements, railway tracks, roads etc. are shown with the help of picturesin the map. They are called conventional signs. Apart from this, some geographicalfeatures are shown with the help of symbols. A list of conventional signs is released byThe Survey Department. Understanding these signs is necessary is order to read a map.A list of conventional signs is given.

Map - Meaning, Uses and Types

A map can not be drawn without a scale. It is not possible to draw a map of thewhole earth's surface on a paper because finding a huge paper is difficult. Suppose wedid get a huge paper even then it would be impossible to draw a map and transport itfrom one place to another. So to draw a suitable map we use scale, according to whichsome topographic features are drawn on a plane paper in a map. There is a ratio betweenthe distance of two points on a map and the distance between the corresponding pointson the actual ground. This ratio is known as scale.

Scale is the ratio between the distance of two points on a map and the actualdistance between the corresponding points on the ground.

For example the distance between two points on a map is 1cm. and the actualdistance on the ground between the same two points is 10 km. So the scale of such a mapwill be 1 cm represents 10,00,000 cm. or 10 km.

1 cm .1 0 ,0 0 0 × 1 0 0 cm . =

1 cm .1 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 0

1 m . = 1 0 0 cm .1 k m . = 1 0 0 0 m1 k m . = 1 ,0 0 ,0 0

There are three ways in which scale is represented on the map. They are as follows:

Statement Scale : Scale represented in the form of a statement like 1 cm to 10kms. is called statement scale. This scale shows that 1 cm represents a distance of 10km. on the ground.

Linear scale : This is a pictorial scale in which a line of 10 to 15 cms is drawn.This line is divided into primary and secondary divisions. First primary division is againdivided into secondary divisions. After the first primary division 0 is numbered and thendistances according to scale are numbered, as shown in the fig. below. This is also knownas graphical scale.

km.km.

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Representative Fractions

The scale of a map is also indicated by a fraction called the representative fraction(RF) in which the numerator is 1 and represents the distance on the map and thedenominator represents the distance on the ground. The Representative Fraction isindependent of any particular unit of measurement. The advantage here is that one canjudge distances on a map even if he is not familiar with the linear measurements of thatcountry. So this is a standard method of representing scale and therefore in all the mapsscale is represented in R.F. with a linear scale in standard units.

For example, if the R.F. in a map is stated to be 1:1,00,000 this means that one uniton the map represents 1,00,000 of the same unit on the ground. If this unit is centimeter,then 1 cms on the map represents 100,000 cm on the ground i.e.: 1 cm represents 1Kilometer. If it is an inch then 1" on the map represents 100,000" or 2778 yards or 1mile 4 furlong 138 yards on the ground.

8.4 Types of Maps

There are different types of Maps. They may be classified on the basis of scale,size or purpose. Maps drawn on the basis of utility may be classified into four parts.

1. Physical Map : On these maps relief features like Mountains, Plateau, Plains,

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Valleys etc. are shown by different colours such as brown, yellow and green accordingto contour lines. So mountainous regions are shown with dark brown colour in the givenmap of M.P.

2. Political Maps :These maps show differentcountries, their administrativeunits, capitals, cities,transportation routes etc.Physical and cultural featuresare also sometimes seen inthe background. Find out thelocation of different districtsof Madhya Pradesh, theirheadquarters and theneighbouring states ofMadhya Pradesh from thegiven Political Map(Administrative Blocks) .

3. DistributionMaps : These mapsdisplay the distribution ofelements found on theEarth, Continent, Countryor on any part of thecountry. Distribution ofrainfall, temperature,presssure, cropproduction, minerals,flora, fauna, industries,trade, means of transport,population and touristplaces etc. are shown onthese maps. Locations oftourist places of M.P. areshown in the given map.

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4. Special Maps: These maps are drawn for some special purpose and areused for giving specific information. These include many types of maps as- Relief Maps,Geological Maps, City planning Maps, Weather maps, Ocean routes and air route maps,Military maps etc.

8.5 Representation of Relief Features

The surface of the earth is not the same everywhere. It has various landforms likemountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, valleys etc. The three dimensional representation ofvarious relief features is known as representation of relief features.

The height or depth of a place is measured from the sea level. The imaginary linesjoining places having the same elevation above or below the sea level are called contourlines. The height of the contour lines is measured from the mean sea level. This levelis known as Datum Plane. The height at this plane is considered as zero and withreference to this base line the height of a place is measured. In small scale maps likewall maps and atlas maps, relief features are indicated by a scheme of graded colours.Each altitudinal zone is indicated by a particular colour. Usually low lands are indicatedby shades of green. Higher elevations are represented by shades of yellow, brown, redand violet. Snow capped peaks are shown as white or left uncoloured. Heights areindicated in metres or feet. Depth of the sea is shown by varying shades of blue. Darkershades indicate greater depth ofthe Ocean. Thus the highest part(mountains) or the deepest part(Oceans) are indicated by thedarker shades and less deeper partsare represented by lighter shades.In this way relief features likemountains, plateaus and plains arerepresented.

Study your atlas map andprepare a scheme of layercolouring. Are similar shades ofcolour used to indicate the sameheight in all maps?

On lage scale maps, liketopographic maps relief featuresare shown by contour lines.

In the maps places of the sameheight above sea level are shown

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by contour lines. Contour linesare based on a detailed survey ofheights of several places in anarea. The heights of each one ofthese places is marked on a mapand contour lines are drawn byinterpolation. These lines aredrawn at definite intervals such as20, 50 or 100 metres. It shouldalways be in numbers ending withzero. Spacing of contours gives anidea of the slope or gradient. Ifcontour lines are closer, itindicates a steep slope and gentleslope is indicated when contoursare widely spaced. Contourdiagrams of some of the majorlandforms are given in the figurewhich will help you understandingthe slopes. See the contourdiagrams of slopes, hills, plateaus, escarpments, cliffs, river valleys and lakes anddifferentiate between the contour lines. Now you can easily understand a topographicalsheet.

8.6 Numbering and Interpretation of Topographical SheetThe maps of our country are made by the National Survey of India. Its head office

is in Dehradoon (Uttaranchal). The maps in which the relief and other features arerepresented by conventional signs and symbols are known as topographical sheets. Thesesheets are drawn on a large scale- when the scale is 1:250,000 or 1 Inch = 4 miles thenit is said to be a large scale.

If the actual distance is more than this then it is called a small scale. In a large scalemap small objects can also be represented clearly. Topographical sheets are not easilyavailable.Interpretation of toposheet

The interpretation of a toposheet is an art. We can collect sufficient informationof the related area successfully by continuous practice. The descreption of landforms isshown by conventional signs and symbols in the map. So understanding of conventionalsigns and symbols is very necessary. Some conventional signs are given on the previouspage. Keeping them in mind interpret a topographical sheet.

Map interpretation is an interesting subject. Two or three students can interpret amap together. Each conclusion should be written pointwise. The Toposheet of districtSehore can be interpreted as follows:

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Title: The given topographical sheet is of district Sehore of Madhya Pradesh. Its

sheet No. is 554

E

Scale: The scale of the sheet is 2 cm represents 1 km. RF is 1:50,000.

Latitudinal and Longitudinal Extent : It extends from 23° N to 23°10' N and77° to 77°10' E.

Physical Features : In a topographical sheet landforms are identified on the basisof the height of the contours. The maximum contour lines are showing the height of 500mtrs. which is flat plain region and its height above sea level is 500 mtrs. The contourinterval is 20 mts.The southern part of the region is comparatively high. A 560 meterhigh hill is shown in the sheet, identify it.

Water Bodies : Sewan river is shown in the north west region. Jahangirpur pondis in the south east and a dry pond named Jamunia pond is in the north east. See thelocation of a river and a pond in the sheet.

Settlement : Sehore and its adjoining areas are shown in this sheet. Apart fromSehore the other settlement areas are Jahangirpura, Mogram and Bijouri.

Means of communication : Sehore is connected by rail-route and roads to otherregions. The rail route runs towards Ujjain in north-west of the sheet and towards Bhopalin the north-east and Ashta, Ichhawar, Shyampur and Bhopal are connected by road.

Forest Areas : The south-west part of the sheet is shown with green colour whichrepresents a forest area.

In the nearby areas some trees are shown which represent vegetation.

Apart from the above points if some other important features are shown in thesheet they should be mentioned. In this way we can collect geographical information byinterpreting a topographical sheet.

Terms

Atlas : A collection of maps or a book of maps.

Projection : A grid of latitudes and longitudes drawn according to scale and rules.

Scale : The ratio which a distance between any two points on a map bears tothe actual distance between the corresponding points on the ground.

Contour lines : Imaginary lines joining all the points of equal elevation or altitudeabove the mean sea level.

Gorge : A deep narrow valley with steep sides formed as a result of rapid

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down cutting by a stream.

Cliff : Along the sea coast soft rocks are eroded by sea waves but the hardrocks can be seen above sea level, a high, steep or perpendicular faceof rock is known as a cliff.

Escarpment : Perpendicular or steep slope of a hill is known as escarpment. It isformed by the erosion of gently inclined strata or from faulting.

Valley : An elongated depression between hills, with a river flowing at thebase is called a valley.

Conical Hill : A cone shaped elevated landform whose height is less than 1000metres from the surrounding area.

Plateau : An elevated tract of comparatively flat or level land, is called aplateau.

Convex Slope : A type of slope with steep slope in the lower part and less slope inthe upper parts.

Concave slope : Steep slope in the upper part and less slope in the lower part.

Exercise

I. Choose the correct answer:

1. Which element is related in proportion to distance in a map?(i) Scale (ii) use of colour(iii) Grid of Latitudes and Longitudes(iv) Use of conventional signs.

2. Which is not a type of map?(i) Physical map of Kerala (ii) Political map(iii) Sketch map of India (iv) Distribution map.

3. Which scale is a Representative Fraction (R.F.)?(i) One inch is equal to ten miles (ii) 1 cm = 1 km.(iii) One cm for ten Km. (iv) 1:10,000.

4. Conventional signs are certified by-(i) Central Information Department (ii) Indian Constitution(iii) Survey Department (iv) Parliament of India.

II. Match the following :A. B.

1. Physical map 1. Land features2. Political map 2. Town & country Planning3. Distribution map 3. Administrative Boundries4. City map 4. Industries and trade

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Very short answer type questions:1. What is a map?2. Write the important elements of a map.3. Name different types of scale.4. What is represented by a physical map?

Short answer type questions1. Differentiate between a Sketch map and a map.2. What is the importance of scale in a map?3. What is Representative Fraction?4. Explain statement scale.5. What is the utility of interpretation of a map?6. What are contour lines?

Long answer type questions1. How many types of maps are there on the basis of utility?2. What are maps? Write the importance of maps.3. Explain numbering of maps.4. Explain the types of maps on the basis of utility.

Questions related to development of skills

1. If the distance between two place is 5 cm and the actual distance between thesame places on the ground is 50 km. then what is the scale?

2. Identify and name the relief features in the given contour maps.

Mark the following in the outline map of India -(1) Tropic of Cancer (2) Nilgiri Mountains (3) Narmada river(4) Tidal forests (5) Mumbai

or(1) Standard meridian for India 82°30' (2) Satpura Ranges (3) River Ganga(4) Western Ghats (5) Delhi

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

200M

M800M

600M400M

800M600M400M

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Appendix - 1Wild Life Sancturaries of Madhya Pradesh

No. Name District Area (Sq. K.m.) Wild Animals

1. Bagdara Sidhi 478.90 Black buck, Leopard,Chinkara, Blue bull

2. Bori Hoshangabad 518.00 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,Sambhar, Bison

3. Fen Mandala 110.74 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,Sambhar

4. Gandhisagar Mandsaur 368.62 Blue bull, Chinkara, Leopard5. Ghatigaon Gwalior 512.00 The great Indian Bustard,

Black buck6. Karera Shivpuri 202.21 The great Indian Bustard,

Black buck7. Ken Chhatarpur /Panna 45.00 Alligator, Crocodile8. Khivani Dewas /Sehore 55.00 Leopard, Sambhar, spotted deer9. National Morena 3902.00 Alligator, Crocodile, Tortoise,

Chambal Dolphin10. Noradehi Sagar 1034.52 Blue bull, Black buck, Spotted

deer, Sambhar, Chinkara11. Pachmarhi Hoshangabad 461.85 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,

Sambhar, Chinkara12. Panpatha Shahdol 245.84 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,

Sambhar, Blue bull, Four hornedAntelope

13. Panpur Morena 345.00 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,Chinkara, Black buck, Sambhar

14. Pench Seoni / 449.39 Tiger, Leopard, Sambhar,Chhindwara Spotted deer, Bison, Sambhar

15. Ratapani Raisen 688.79 Tiger, Leopard, Sambhar, Spot-ted deer, Blue bull, Chinkara

16. Sanjay Sidhi 364.59 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,(Dubari) blue bull, Chinkara

17. Singhari Raisen 287.91 Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,Sambhar, Blue bull, Chinkara

18. Son Sidhi-Shahdol 209.00 Alligator, Crocodile, Tortoise19. Sardarpur Dhar 248.12 Kharmour20. Sailana Ratlam 12.96 Kharmour21. Orchha Tikamgarh 45.00 Spotted deer, Blue bull22. Narsinghgarh Rajgarh 57.19 Leopard, Spotted deer,

Sambhar, Blue bull, Bison,Crane

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Appendix - 2India - States and Union Territories : Population and Density (2001)

S.No. State/ Population Percentage of Density/Km2

Union Territory (In thousands) population (2001)

1. Uttar Pradesh 166,198 16.16 6892. Maharashtra 96,879 9.42 3143. Bihar 82,999 8.07 8804. West Bengal 80,176 7.79 9045. Andhra Pradesh 76,210 7.41 2756. Tamil Nadu 62,406 6.07 4787. Madhya Pradesh 60,348 5.87 1968. Rajasthan 56,507 5.49 1659. Karnataka 52,851 5.14 27510. Gujarat 50,671 4.93 25811. Orissa 36,805 3.58 23612. Kerala 31,841 3.10 81913. Jharkhand 26,946 2.62 33814. Assam 26,656 2.59 34015. Punjab 24,359 2.37 48216. Haryana 21,145 0.06 47717. Chhattisgarh 20,834 2.03 15418. Delhi 13,851 1.35 929419. Jammu and Kashmir 10,144 0.99 9920. Uttaranchal 8,489 0.83 15921. Himachal Pradesh 6,078 0.59 10922. Tripura 3,199 0.31 30423. Meghalaya 2,319 0.23 10324. Manipur 2,294 0.22 10725. Nagaland 1,190 0.19 12026. Goa 1,348 0.13 36327. Arunachal Pradesh 1,098 0.00 1328. Pondicherry 974 0.09 202929. Chandigarh 901 0.09 790330. Mizoram 889 0.09 4231. Sikkim 541 0.05 7632. Andaman &Nicobar Islands 356 0.03 4333. Dadra & Nagar Haveli 220 0.02 44934. Daman and Diu 158 0.02 141135. Lakshadweep 61 0.01 1894

Total 1028737 100.00 324

Source : Government of India Census Report, 2001

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Appendix - 3Literacy status of states and union territories of India (in percentage) (2001)S.No. State/ Male Female Total

Union Territory literacy literacy literacy

1. Jammu & Kashmir 65.75 41.82 54.462. Himachal Pradesh 86.02 68.08 77.133. Punjab 75.6 63.5 69.94. Chandigarh 85.65 76.65 81.765. Uttaranchal 84.01 60.26 72.286. Haryana 79.25 56.31 68.597. Delhi 87.3 74.7 81.828. Rajasthan 76.46 44.34 61.039. Uttar Pradesh 70.23 42.98 57.3610. Bihar 60.32 33.57 47.5311. Sikkim 76.73 61.46 69.6812. Arunachal Pradesh 64.07 44.24 54.7413. Nagaland 71.77 61.92 67.1114. Manipur 77.87 57.70 68.8715. Mizoram 90.69 86.13 88.4916. Tripura 81.47 65.41 73.6617. Meghalaya 66.14 60.41 63.3118. Assam 71.93 56.03 64.2819. Jharkhand 67.94 39.38 54.1320. Orissa 75.95 50.97 63.6121. Chhattisgarh 77.86 52.40 65.1822. Madhya Pradesh 76.80 50.28 64.1123. Gujarat 80.50 58.60 69.9724. Daman and Diu 88.40 70.37 81.925. Dadra and Nagar Haveli 73.32 42.99 60.0326. Andaman and Nicobar Islands 86.07 75.29 81.1827. West Bengal 77.58 60.22 69.2328. Pondicherry 88.89 74.13 81.4929. Maharashtra 86.27 67.51 77.2730. Andhra Pradesh 70.85 51.17 61.1131. Karnataka 76.29 57.45 67.0432. Goa 88.88 75.51 82.3233. Lakshadweep 93.15 81.56 87.5234. Kerala 94.20 87.86 90.9235. Tamil Nadu 82.33 64.55 73.47

India 75.85 54.16 65.38

Source : Government of India Census Report, 2001

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��������

History of Ancient India

We will Study �9.1 Historical Chronology

of Ancient India

9.2 Indus valleycivilization orHarappa civilization

9.3 Vedic civilization

9.4 Civilization of the Epicperiod

9.5 The Age of Janpads andMahajanpads

9.6 Jainism and Buddhism

9.7 Mauryan Empire

9.8 Gupta Empire

9.9 Harsha's Empire

9.1 Historical Chronology of AncientIndia.

India's archaeological, cultural and historicaltradition has been extremely rich and glorious. Thehistory of ancient India includes the Indus or Harappancivilization, Vedic civilization, the Epic period, Jainismand Buddhism the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta Empireand the rule of Harshavardhan. These civilizations anddynasties had their own distinct identities. Indians hada strong historical apititude since ancient times.

There are enough sources to throw light on ancientIndian history. These include:-

1. Literary Sources:- Indian literature hasworldly and religious elements. Vedas (Rigveda,Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda) Aranyakas,Upanishads, Vedangs, Sutras, Epics ( Mahabharat andRamayana) Smrities, Puranas, Buddhist literature, Jain

literature, Vishakhadutta's Mudrarakshas, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Patanjali's Mahabhashya,Panini's Ashtadhyayi, Kalhan'sRajtarangini and other literarysources are the chief sourcesof information about ancientIndian geographical, political,cultural, religious andeconomic life.

2. ArchaeologicalSources: They are the mostimportant sources ofinformation about ancient India.The discovery, excavation and study of inscriptions - rock edicts, writings on copperplates, birch bark, currency, statues and monuments are of a great help in the study ofancient history.

Chief Civilizations and Chronologicaldynasties of Ancient India order

(Approximately)

● Indus civilization 2500 B.C. 1750 B.C.● Vedic civilization 1500 B.C. - 600 B.C.● Janpads and Mahajanpads 600 B.C. - 400 B.C.● Mauryan Empire 322 B.C.- 187 B.C.● Gupta Empire 320 A.D. - 570 A.D.● Harshavardhan's Empire 606 A.D. - 646 A.D.

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3. Accounts of foreign travellers - writings of foreigners give us usefulinformation. Persian, Greek, Chinese, Tibetan and Arab merchants, travellers, diplomatsand philosophers' descriptions help in the study of the stages of development of ancientIndian society. Though many of the accounts of the foreign travellers are influenced byfolk lore and therefore cannot be fully relied upon yet they have an important place inthe study of Indian history.

9.2 Indus ValleyCivilization orHarappan Civilization

The urban culture thatdeveloped in India andPakistan's north westernpart in the Indus river basinand its tributaries isgenerally called the Indusvalley civilization. Fromthe geographical point ofview it was the world'slargest civilization. Thiscivilization spread toPakistan, SouthernAfghanistan, and in Indiain the states of Rajasthan,Gujarat, Jammu andKashmir, Punjab, Haryana,Western U.P. andMaharashtra. The main sites of this civiliztion are- Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Chanhudaro(Pakistan) Ropar (Punjab) Rangpur (Saurashtra), Lothal Surkotda, Dhaulavira (Gujarat)Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi (Haryana) Manda (Jammu and Kashmir), Alamgirpur,Hulaas (Uttar Pradesh) etc. Look at the above mentioned cities in the given map.

The Indus valley civilization was discovered in 1921 by Dr. Dayaram Sahni in aplace called Harappa which is situated on the banks of river Ravi. Mohenjodaro whichliterary means 'The Mound of the Dead' was discovered in 1927 by Rakhaldas Banerjee.The famous Great Bath was found here : Kalibangan situated in Hanumangarh district ofRajasthan on the bank of river Ghaghar (ancient Saraswati) is also an important city ofthis civilization. According to the archaeologists tradition they have named this civilizationon the name of the first known site as the Harappan Civilization. In due course of time

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Pictures obtained from geo stationery satellite ofancient Saraswati and Yamuna and its tributaries.

abundant remains of thiscivilization were found faraway, from the Indus valley,in the extinct Saraswati riverbasin and in the Ganga-Yamuna basin and in theNarmada-Tapti basin. On thisbasis some archaeologistshave named this civilizationas the Indus-Saraswaticivilization.

Saraswati River

Whether or not there isa mutual relationship betweenthe initial civilizations namelythe Indus civilization and the Vedic civlization is a very big historical question. Latestresearches and possibilities indicate that these two civilizations were not two individualcivilizations, but to some extent both were interlinked. New discoveries have revealedthat almost two-thirds of the Indus civilization was spread in the areas of the extinctSaraswati river and its tributaries. The contribution of Dr. Vishnu Shreedhar Wakankar'sresearch on the river Saraswati is of vital importance. During the Vedic period theSaraswati was a very big river. It has been constantly referred to in the Vedas. Effortshave been made in the last 20 years through airial and land surveys to mark the areadrained by the Saraswati river. It is believed that the river Saraswati must have originatedfrom the Shivalik ranges of the Himalayas and from there it flowed to Ambala, Thaneshar,Kurukshetra, Pahova, Sirsa, Hansi, Agroha, Hanumangari and via Kalibanga to Anupgarhto Suratgarh. In due course of time due to ecological changes the Saraswati river slowlydried up and became extinct after some time. There is a continuous research going onabout the civilization that developed around the Sarswati river.

In the 20th century, while writing the history of ancient India, historians andarchaeologists devised an order of the development of the ancient civilization in India. Thefirst in this order came the Harappan (Indus) civilization, then the advent of the Aryans andafter that came the decline of the Indus civilization. A new cvilization developed afterwardsknown as the Vedic civilization. But some modern historians and archaeologists on the basisof latest researches do not agree with the above chronology. They do not accept that Aryanscame from outside, they believe that Harappan and Vedic civilizations both developed andflourished in one region (the Sapta - Sindhu reign) therefore both these civilization are ininseparable. They stake three established parameters for this claim - first, both thecivilizations developed in the same geographical region. Secondly, the time period of both

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these civilization is almost the same or both the periods were entwined together. Thirdly thecultural structure of both the civilizations is amazingly similar.

Archaeologists draw attention to the fact that no literary evidence about the origin ofthe Harappan culture is available and no archaeological evidence of the Vedic literature havebeen known. The scholars believe that both the cultures are in fact two facets of the samecoin. City culture became well known as Harappan civlilization and the spiritual aspect ofthe culture came to be known as the Vedic civlization. However more research andpublication of facts in this direction is required.

Social life in the Indus civilization : The study of the archaeological sources of theHarappan civilization proves that the society was divided into various groups. Theprominent among them werepotters, carpenters, weavers,plumbers, masons, artisans,brick makers, beadmakers andsculptors. During the period,priests must have occupied animportant position andperformed special duties. Theremains found at Mohenjodaropoint in this direction.

Besides these,bureaucrats, military and government officials,intellectuals, traders and labourers also resided here. The people of the Harappancivilization had an artistic bent of mind. The people of the Harappan civilization werewell versed in the art of hairstyling, and indulged in ornaments and cosmetics. Duringthis period people excelled in singing, music, dance etc. The statue of a dancing girlfound during the excavation certifies the same. Food habits of this period included bothvegetarian and non-vegetarian food. Ornaments were made of copper, bronze, shells,ivory, clay beads, beads made of horn and bones, hair clips, finger rings, bangles,necklaces, armulets, bracelets, anklets and earrings which were worn as ornaments. Theywere also fond of hunting. From the remains found at Mohenjodaro a Yogi's image onone of the seals (resembling Pashupatinath - Shiva) Rock Lingas (resembling Shiv Linga)we can form an idea of the religious beliefs of the people. Besides these, evidences ofworship of snake, trees, the sun and water have also been found from the excavations.

Economic Life in the Indus civilization : The economy of this period was welldeveloped. Agriculture was the main occupation. Besides agriculture, animal rearing,industry, internal and external trade, statue making industry, bricks industry, sculptureetc. were the chief industries. Indus valley people had trade relations with foreign

Male statue coveedwith Shawl

Ornamanets obtained from Harappa

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countries. The contact with foreigners was both through land and water route. On landbullock carts and in water ships were used. The uniformity of various objects found fromthe Indus civilization indicates that the control of a well-organized system ofadministration in the economic sphere must have existed.

Public Bath : In the excavations of Mohenjodaro a big bath has been found whichis rectangular. It has a balcony on all the four sides and there are rooms behind thebalconies, swimming pool and big wells to fill in water. Every corner of the bath has a

staircase and the bath is made of baked bricks. This bath probably had a religioussignificance and on sacred occasions people bathed in it. The great bath was so wellconstructed that it exists even today.

Political Structure : Much information about the political organization of theHarappan civilization has not been found. On the basis of sources found from the site -well-planned city, agriculture and industry it can be concluded that there must have beena centralized system of control in the Indus region. Perhaps officials ruled over differentcities. For maintaining and keeping the city clean waste disposal terracota pots (dustbins)and tins were placed at different places. Every city must have had an institution similarto the Municipality for the construction and renovation of roads, bridges, canals, publicbuildings, for controlling shops and types of construction of individual homes buildings,windows, drains etc. and for monitoring labour, prices, weights and measures as per rulesand regulations.

Charecteristics of Indus Valley Civilization● The Indus civilization was familiar with city culture. It had a well-organized

city planning system.

● It has knowledge of an efficient water drainage management.

● They were familiar with sea trade.

Great Bath Mohanjodaroo

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● It made magnificent contribution (building construction, painting, statuemaking, utensils and art of ornament making)

● Religious belief and worship of nature was present.

Downfall of Indus valley civilization

Historians have different opinions regarding the downfall of the Indus valleycivilization. It must not have declined suddenly. It was perhaps because of the occurrenceof floods in the river, changing of the river course, perhaps due to the occurrence ofearthquakes, or change in climatic conditions or spread of an epidemic which must haveresulted in the downfall of the Indus valley civilization.

9.3 The Vedic Civilization

Life as shown in the Vedas the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samveda and theAtharvaveda together with other contemporary literary works depict and tell us about theVedic civilization. The entire vedicperiod tested an extensive periodof time. The entire vedic periodindicates an extensive time period.For study purposes we can divide itinto two parts. The Early Rigvedicperiod in which the Rigveda wascomposed. This period is believedto extend from 1500 B.C. to 1000B.C.The rest of the three vedas were composed in the Later vedic period. This period isbelieved to have been between 600 B.C. to 1000 B.C. The Purans, the Upanishadas, theEpics and the Smritis have also been placed in the same period.

Social Life : The Indian society during the Vedic period was formed of 'Aryans'.Aryans had thousands of domesticated animals. They settled wherever food and fodder foranimals was available. The chief basis of social organization of the Aryans was the familyor the clan. The oldest male member was the head of the family. Joint family system wasprevalent during the period in which people of many generations lived together. Varna-system was prevalent during the Vedic period. There were 4 Varnas - Brahmins, Kshatriyas,Vaishyas and Shudras. These Varnas were however not hereditary. For regulation of thesocial system Aryans considered life expectancy to be 100 years and divided it into fourAshrams. These were Brahamcharya, (for learning and education), Grahastha (family life),Vanprastha (retirement from family life), Sanyas (renouncing the worldly affairs)

Women enjoyed a high status in the society. They participated in all social and religiousactivities. They received higher education. Social evils like dowry, Purdah system and childmarriages were not prevalent.

● Veda mean knowledge of sacred spiritualknowledge.

● There are four Vedas - Rigvieda, Yajueveda,Samveda and Atharvaveda.

● Rigveda is the most ancient epic.

● Rigveda Yajurveda and Samveda are known asVedatrayi (Three veda)

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Cotton, woollen, Silk clothes were used. Women took a keen interest in dressingup. Vedic literature refers to different hairstyles and use of scented oil and ornaments.Rice, barley, ghee ( processed butter) and, milk formed the main food of the Aryans.Chariot racing, horse riding, hunting, dancing, gambling, and games of dice were thechief means of entertainment.

Economic Life : The Vedic civilization was rural and was primarily agrarian.Wheat, Jowar, Urad, Masoor (pulses) and sesame were basically cultivated. The Irrigationsystem was well developed. Along with agriculture, animal husbandry was the chiefoccupation. The status of a person in society was determined by the number of cows onehad. Horses, cows, buffaloes, sheep goats etc. were domesticated. Domestic system ofproduction and artisanship were highly developed. Carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths,cobblers, had great importance. Both Internal and external trade flourished. Bartersystem was prevalent. Initially the cow was the chief medium of exchange. Rigvedarefers to exchange of Indras statues for ten cows. After the cow, 'Nishka' as a mediumof exchange was used.

Religious Life : Aryans made great progress in the religious and the spiritualsphere. The chief features of their religious lives were as follows:

● Vedic Aryans were nature worshippers. They worshipped various forms ofnature. Sun, moon, wind, clouds (Megh) Usha (Goddess of Light) weretheir chief Gods and Goddesses.

● There was a provision of "Yagya' for every Aryan. They believed that Yagyasplease God and fulfill all wishes. Yagyas were the chief basis of rites andrituals.

● Though Aryans worshipped many Gods, they still believed in Monotheism.

In the Later Vedic period the religious canvas of society changed and religiousrefinement and complexities came in. Maha Yagyans like Ashwamedha, Rajsurya andVajpai were performed during this period. Atharvaveda refers to worldly religion andbeliefs. Moral behaviour was estblished in the Grahastha ashram through five Mahayagyansand three Rynas (Loans). Different philosophical thoughts developed during the sameperiod.

Political Life :

● Vedic Aryans were organized into various 'Janas' or tribes. A tribe hadmembers of the same clan or family.

● The basis of the political system was the clan. The father was head of theclan. Many clans together formed a 'tribe or village'

● Many villages together formed the 'Vish', the head of the Vish was calledthe Vishapati.

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● Many 'Vish' together formed 'Jana' the head of which was "Gopa".

● 'Janpads' were established during the Later Vedic period.

The Rigvedic people organized themselves into communities which were called"Janas". The chief of the tribe the Pradhan or leader was called 'Rajan' or Gopit, who wasresponsible for the safety of his community and animals. The Vedic period administrativesystem was primarily monarchical. The position of the king was hereditary. The positionand powers of the King increased during the Later Vedic period. The chief duties of theking were - protection of the subjects, waging wars, maintaining peace and giving justiceto the subjects.

There were many subordinates to assist the King. The chief among them were thePurohits or the priest. The commander of the army Senani, Gramin (village officerSangrahita or the treasurer, revenue collector, charioteer, Palagal' (Kings friend andamuser) these were the others who helped the king.

Sabha and Samiti : The Sabha and the Samiti were important and effectivepolitical organizations of the vedic period. Probably they checked the arbitrary decisionsof the King. The Rigveda refers to these institutions.

Military Organization : Military Organization and the art of warfare wereconsiderably developed during this period. Infantry, cavalry and charioteers formed themain army. The main objective of wars was self defence to gain, victory and thedestruction of the glory of neighbouring kingdoms.

The above description clarifies that the administrative and cultural values of thevedic civilization are relevant even today.

9.4 Epic period Civilizaton

India's two great epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharat. Nothing certain aboutthe period of their composition can be said, but the Ramayana was composed muchearlier than the Mahabharat. The reference to cities like Ayodhya and Mithila are foundin the Ramayana whereas the Mahabharata refers of cities of Kurukshetra, Indraprastha,Hastinapur and Dwarika. Archaeological excavations have proved that probably most ofthese towns existed.

Republican and monarchical, both types of states existed during the period. Theposition of the king was hereditary. But the King was not an autocrat, and was regulatedby his duties and religion. There were two institutions to assist the King. A Council ofministers (mantri parishad) and the Sabha (General Assembly). For administrativeconvenience the state was divided into many units. There are references of manyrepublics in the Mahabharata

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9.5 The Age of Janpads and the MahajanpadsDuring the early phase, Aryans settled in the valleys of the rivers Sutlej, Jhelum,

Vyas (Beas) and the Saraswati. Slowly they settled in the fertile plains of the Ganga inthe southwest. They cleared the forests and prepared land for agriculture. They establishedJanpads here.

Janpad means a region of human settlements. The nomenclature of these Janpadswas on the Jana or clans who established them. The Mahabharata refers to many Janpads.

Big and powerful Janpads were called Mahajanpads. Some small Janpads wereunder their domination.

There were many states during the period where the post of the king was nothereditary. These states were called Republics. Unlike in the Janpads and Mahajanpads,the position of the King was not hereditary in the Republics. The King of these stateswas elected by the people just like we elect our Government today. Some of theRepublics were very small such as the Vajjis of Mithila, the Shakyas of Kapilvastu andthe Mallas of Pava etc.

There were matrimonial relations between the people of various Janpads,Mahajanpads and Republics. Inspite of the matrimonial relations, there were wars betweenthese Janpads, Mahajanpads and the Republics over the expansion of their Empires. Slowly4 powerful Mahajanpads were formed from 16 Mahajanpads. These were Avanti, Magadh,Kaushal and Vatsya. Magadh was always at war for increasing its power and expanding itsempire. As a result, it became the most powerful among all Janpads and Mahajanpads.

After the later Vedic period, Janpads and Republics regulated the political systems.In course of time out of the 16 chief Janpads and 4 chief Mahajanpads there was a riseof the Magadha empire. Magadha was ruled by Haryanka dynasty, Shishunag dynasty andNanda dynasty respectively. After defeating Dhanand of the Nanda dynasty, the MauryanEmpire was established over Magadha under the leadership of Chandra Gupta. Its PrimeMinister was Kautilya (Chanakya) who wrote the Arthashastra.

Advent of Alexander to India : This Greek ruler came to India as a part of his worldvictory campaign. He was the son of Philip, the ruler of Macedonia. After the death ofhis father, he inherited the throne at the age of 20 years. He was a highly ambitious ruler.After defeating Persia he entered India which was called the golden bird ( Sone KiChidiya), Alexander had to fight against the tribal ruler Hasti, called Asthus by the Greekwho gave a tough resistance to Alexander. After the death of Hasti his Queen and otherwomen continued to defend their state and fought till their last breath. Finally Alexanderemerged victorious. and he marched ahead. The ruler of Takshashila Ambhi surrenderedbefore him. But the ruler of the Jhelum region Porus refused to surrender. Both the armiesconfronted each other across the river Jhelum. Alexander realised that in the face of the

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opposition by the enemy, it would not be possible to cross the river. Therefore, he attackedPorus at night. Porus fought bravely against Alexander but finally Alexander emergedvictorious. Later, looking at the bravery and self-respect with which Porus defended hiskingdom, Alexander treated Porus as one King treats another King and returned hiskingdom. Alexander died enroute in 332 B.C. while returning to his kingdom.

9.6 Jainism and BuddhismThe period 6th century B.C. has a prominent place in Indian history. Jainism and

Buddhism rose during this period. The purpose of these was to remove the superstitiousand malpractices that had creptin, in religion.

Jainism : Vardhaman Mahavir was the 24th Tirthankar of the Jain religion. Mahavirwas born to King Siddharth of Kundgrama. Vardhaman (Mahavir) was thoughtful and sobersince childhood. He renounced the world after the death of his father. He attained Kaivalya(highest knowledge) after 12 years of penance and meditation. He was called a Jina (orvictor over the senses) as he got victory over his senses; and his followers were called Jains.The main principle of Jainism is Ahimsa or non-violence. According to Jainism nonviolence is not only refraining from violence but violence in thought, speech and allowingviolence by others. Mahavir stated the importance of the five vows (Ahimsa, Satya,Achorya, Aparigrah, Brahmchrya).

Buddhist Religion : The founder of Buddhism was the Buddha who was born inthe royal family of King Shuddhodana, the ruler of Kapilvastu, at a place called Lumbini.Right from his childhood, Siddharth was thoughtful, quiet and composed. In the searchof salvation and freedom from the worldly pains, Siddharth left his home and wife andafter wandering, meditated under a pipal tree. On the day of Vaishakh Poornima heattained enlightenment. The tree under which he attained enlightenment is called the'Bodhi tree' and the place became famous as Bodh Gaya. The disciples of Buddhacompiled Buddha's sermons and lectures in the form of Tripatikas. The Buddha wasprimarily a religious reformer who tried to remove the evils that had crept into religion.Mahatma Buddha was of the opinion that man's life was full of suffering from thebeginning till the end. In order to be free from sufferings, he stated the four noble truthsand the ‘Eight fold path’. Besides India, Buddhism spread to Srilanka, China, Japan, Java,Sumatra and many other countries.

9.7 Mauryan Empire

The Mauryan Empire was oneof the greatest Empires in India.During the reign of Chandragupta,Mauryan political unity wasestablished in India for the first time.During the same period.

The famous rulers of theMauryan Empire (The time period approximately)

● Chandragupta Maurya 322 B.C. to 298 B.C.

● Bindusar 298 B.C. to 273 B.C.

● Ashoka the great 273 B.C. to 236 B.C.

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chronological writing began. We get information about the Mauryan period chiefly fromKautilya's Arthshastra, Vishakhdutta's, Mudrarakshas, Megasthenese's Indica, descriptionof Greek writers, various inscriptions of Asoka, and from the books 'Deepvamsha' and'Mahavamsha'

Chandra Gupta Maurya is considered to be one of the greatest rulers of India. Withthe help of Kautilya he defeated the Nandas and laid the foundation of the Mauryan

dynasty. Greek writers have referred to him as, 'Sandro Kottis'.

Chandra Gupta Maurya great victor, great diplomat, able administrator,religious, benevolent ruler. He was the first ruler in ancient India toimplement a new political system. He gave direction to central, provincial,city and village administrative system.

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Chandra Gupta defeated the Greek Commander Selucus Nector around 305 B.C. andexpanded his kingdom to regions of Kabul, Kandahar, Hirat and Baluchistan. Selecusmarried his daughter to Chandra Gupta and entered into a treaty. Megasthenes came as anAmbassador to Chandra Gupta's court. He has described the then society in his book, Indica.After his victory over Northern India Chandragupta won over Kathiawar, Saurashtra, andparts of southern India.

In his last days Chandra Gupta embraced Jainism. He renounced his throne and thegrandeur of his kingdom and went to the Sravanbelagola hills of Southern India and laterdied there.

Administrative system : We learn about Chandra Gupta's administrative systemthrough Megastheneses; 'Indica and Kautilya's Arthashastra. The chief featues of hisadministration were as follows:

1. The King was the highest official of the Empire. He was the head of the army andthe administrator of justice. He was involved in the works concerning thewelfare of his subjects.

2. There was a council of ministers to assist the King.

3. An Espionage system, a Judicial system and military organization was strong.

4. Land revenue was the main source of the state's income; 1/6th of the producewas taken as the tax.

5. The officer collecting taxes was called Samaharta.

6. The Empire was divided into provinces. They were governed by Princes ormembers of the royal family.

7. There were six commitee for city administration. Each had 5 members.

8. The military system was very strong. It was looked after by six commitee. Thesewere - Admiral commitee, Infantry, Cavalry, war chariots, elephant armycommitee which managed military transport.

9. Code of punishment was very strict.

10. From Kautilya's Arthashastra we come to know that there were two types ofCourts - civil (Diwani) and criminal (Faujdari).

Bindusar

Chandra Gupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusar. He has been given the title ofAmitraghat or slayer of enemies. He was brave, courageous and daring. He had friendly relationswith the Greek ruler of western Asia. He was successful in defending and organising thekingdom inherited from his father.

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Ashoka the Great

Ashoka was the third and most famous Emperor of the Mauryan dynasty. He provedhis ability and talent during his father Bindusar's reign. Asoka was crowned in around 269B.C. In the initial years of his rule he pursued his Grandfather Chandra Gupta Maurya'slegacy of imperialism and Digvijay (military conquests).

He fought a war with Kalinga. The province of Kalinga is in Orissa. There was atough war between the armies of Asoka and Kalinga. Asoka emerged victrious in the end.According to the 13th rock edict of Asoka, 1,50,000 persons were carried away ascaptives, 1,00,000 persons were slain, and many times that number died. Asoka was filledwith profound sorrow and grief after the bloodshed in the war and also with remorse andself realisation. The important result of this war was a change in Asoka's attitude and hebegan to follow a policy of peace ratherthan that of war. The era of militaryconquests or Digvijay was over and anera of spiritual conquest or Dhammavijaybegan. He also became a follower ofBuddhism. The Kalinga war gave a newdirection to Asoka's life.

Ashoka's Dhamma ( Religion)

After the Kalinga war, Ashoka'sembraced Buddhism. In his inscriptionshe not only propagated the fundamental principles of Buddhism but also moral principles.His Dhamma was the summary of all religions. Ashoka's Dhamma aims for the welfareof all, and aims at mental, moral and spiritual upliftment of all living beings. HisDhamma was extremely simple and practical.

Mercy for all beings, speaking the truth, wishing for the well being of all, respectto parents and teachers, were the chief features of Ashoka's Dhamma. He sent messengersfor the spread of Buddhism in foreign countries. Ashoka's got many rock inscriptions andpillar inscriptions made. His son and daughter Mahendra and Sanghamitra went toSrilanka for propogating Buddhism. He got Stupas constructed, inscribed religiousinscriptions, established a department of religion and appointed officers called DhammaMahamatras. Most of the inscriptions of Asoka describe him as 'Devanam Priyadasi'which means favourite of the Gods.

Causes of the Downfall of the Mauryan Empire

1. The successors of Asoka were incapable. They divided the Empire amongthemselves and could not keep the Empire of their ancestors intact.

2. The oppression of Provincial officers.

Chief features of Ashoka's Dhamma.

● Sovereignity

● Importance given to self-discipline andettiquette.

● Non-violence and religious tolerance.

● Prominence of moral values.

● Emphasis on practising truth in life.

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3. Lack of nationalism in the subjects.

4. Asoka's policy of non-violence made Military administration weak. Therewas lethargy also in the administrative system.

The last ruler of the Mauryan Empire Brihadrath was killed by his commanderPushyamitra Sunga, and the Mauryan dynasty came to an end. Pushyamutra Sunga performedthe Aswamedha Yagya. After the Mauryas, the Sungas, the Kanvas, the Satvahanas, the Sakasand the Kushansdynastics ruled over India. During the rule of Kanishka the "Fourth Buddhistcouncil" was called inKundan Van inKashmir.

9.8 The GuptaEmpire

After theMauryas, the Guptarulers re-establishedthe political unity inIndia. There wasu n p r e c e d e n t e dprogress in the economic, social, literary, cultural and artistic fields during the period.The Gupta period is known as the golden period in Indian history.

Shri Gupta

The founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. He was succeeded by Ghatotkatch(300 A.D.- 319 A.D.)

Chandra Gupta I

Ghatotkatcha's son Chandra Gupta I, took over the reigns of the Gupta Empire afterhim. He is described as 'Maharajadhiraj' or King of Kings. Chandra Gupta was marriedto a Lichhavi princess Kumar Devi. During the same period the 'Gupta Era' began. He laidthe foundation of a powerful empire and expanded his empire.

Samudra Gupta

After Chandra Gupta I his son Samudra Gupta inherited the throne. He extended theboundaries of the Empire inherited by him and gave political unity to India. In his victorycampaigns Samudra Gupta conquered nine powerful states of northern India and mergedthem with his Kingdom. He also conquered the Atavika states of central India. In hisconquest of the south 'Dakshinapath he won over 12 states but returned them to theKings. These states gave annual taxes to the Gupta rulers. Due to his victory overAryavrata and Dakshinapath the frontier states and republics got scared and they accepted

Prominent rulers of the Gupta Dynasty. (Approximate Chronology)

Shri Gupta (founder) 275 A.D. to 300 A.D.

Ghatotkacha 300 A.D. to 319 A.D.

Chandra Gupta I 319 to 335 A.D.

Samudra Gupta 335 to 375 A.D.

Ram Gupta 375 A.D.

Chandra Gupta II 'Vikramaditya' 380 A.D. to 412 A.D.

Kumar Gupta 413 A.D. to 455 A.D.

Skanda Gupta 455 A.D. to 467 A.D.

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the sovereignity of Samudra Gupta. After his victory he performed the Ashvamedha

Yagyan and issued gold currencies. References of his victories are mentioned inHarisen's Allahabad pillar inscription.

Samudra Gupta was a great military commander, efficient politician and an invincilblewarrior.

The famous historian Smith has called Samudra Gupta the ‘Indian Napoleon.’ Some ofthe Indian historians call Samudra Gupta greater and more practical than Napoleon becauseSamudra Gupta accomplished many victories but never incorporated the states he won intohis Empire nor did he try to impose his will upon these states. He only took gifts or taxesfrom the rulers and allowed the rulers to be independent and friendly states.

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Samudra Gupta left behind a very well organised and extensive empire to hissuccessors, where there was peace, prosperity and well being, where all around therewere vanquished but friendly rulers. There was an excellent environment for culturaldevelopment. During his reign art, literature, trade and occupation, music, religion etc.made progress. In short, the country was on the path of development.

The Dasavatar ( Ten incarnation) statues related to the Vaishnav religion were firstcarved out during the Gupta Empire.

Chandra Gupta II, Vikramaditya

Chandra Gupta II consolidated and stengthened the Gupta Empire inherited from hisfather. Subhudra gupta

● Chandra Gupta II married Kubernaga of the Naga dynasty. This led to friendlyrelations between both the dynasties. He married his daughter Prabhavati Guptato Rudrasena II the Vakataka King. This relationship secured Chandra Gupta'scontrol over the Sakas. These matrimonial alliances proved to be politicallyvery important. The daughter of Kadama dynasty was also married into theGupta dynasty. Due to this matrimonial alliance the glory of Chandra Gupta IIspread to southern India as well.

● An important achievement of Chandra Gupta II's reign was victory over theSakas. As a result of this victory western Malwa, Gujarat, Saurashtra, states ofKathiawad came under the Gupta Empire. The western boundaries of the Guptaempire reached the Arabian sea.

● Chandra Gupta II is also described as Vikramaditya. He was an able poltician.He was a great victor, able administrator, admirer of knowledge, benevolent,and protector of intellectuals. Among the Navratnas (nine Gems) in his courtKalidas held a prominent place. During Chandra Gupta's period, science,architecture and sculpture saw remarkable progress. The Chinese travellerFahein came during his reign and stayed in India from 405-411 A.D. In histravelogues, he has described the contemporary political social and economiccondition of India.

Vikramditya was a lover of justice ruler of Ujjain, he won over the Sakas andstarted a new era, which is known as the Vikram Era. Presently, the VikramEra is prevalant in India and the Chaitra Shukla Pratipada marks thebeginning of the new year.

Kumar GuptaHe was the successor of Chandra Gupta II. He inherited the empire from his

forerunners. The Gupta Empire reached its pinnacle of glory due to peace, stability andgood organization.

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Skanda GuptaAfter Kumar Gupta, Skanda Gupta ascended the throne. He protected India from the

Hun attacks. He realized the importance of western frontier states and made arrangementsfor their defence. Thereafter, he was succeded by Puru Gupta, Kumar Gupta, Buddh Gupta,Vanya Gupta, Bhanu Gupta, Narsingh Gupta, Kumar Gupta III, Vishnu Gupta and others.

Administrative Organization

Like the Maurya rulers, the Gupta rulers also made public welfare the basicfoundation of their administration. The King was the highest official of the state. Thefinal authority of the state was in his hands. There was a council of ministers and otherofficials to assist the King. The chief source of income was land revenue, which wascalled 'Bhaga'. This was generally one sixth of the produce. The Gupta Empire wasdivided into three parts- Central, Provincial and Local administration. The chief objectiveof the Gupta rulers was public welfare. For this they made hospitals, Dharamshalas, orresthouses schools, roads etc.

Administrative Organization during the Gupta period.

Central Provincial LocalAdministration Administration Administration

● King ● Bhukti (Province) ● City administration.

● Council of Ministers ● Pradesh

● Officials ● Vishaya ● Village

● Judicial Organization Administration

● Military Administration

● Revenue Organization

Gupta Period - The Golden period ofAncient Indian history

There was all round developmentduring the Gupta period. Therefore thisperiod is referred to as the golden period.During this period there were great rulerslike Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta andChandra Gupta II, Vikramaditya.

The rulers paid great attentiontowards the welfare of their subjects.They maintained peace and good administration. Each ruler made efforts to organize Indiainto one political unit. There was economic prosperity every where. Consequently art andliterature saw remarkable growth. The period produced mathematician and astronomers like

Reasons why the Gupta age is called theGolden age–1. Era of great rulers2. Era of peace3. Era of political unity4. Ear of Economic prosperity5. Era of Artistic progress6. Era of Literary progress7. Ear of Scientific progress8. Security from foreign aggression

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Varahmihira Aryabhatta and Bhramagupta. Aryabhatta in his 'Surya-Siddhanta explained thecauses of solar and lunar eclipses. He also declared that the earth revolves round its axis. Healso wrote a book 'Aryabhatiya'. The invention of zero and decimal system was alsointroduced during this period. The prominent mathematicians of the Gupta period were alsoskilled in astrology. Besides, astrology and mathematics, literature, painting, architecture,physics, metallurgy and knowledge of astronomical occurrences was at its peak.

Causes of Downfall of Gupta Empire

1. There were no able rulers after Skanda Gupta in the Gupta dynasty. Theyfailed to protect their Empire from internal revolts and foreign attacks.

2. Attacks of the Huns gave a severe blow to the Gupta Empire.

3. The law of inheritance was not well defined. This resulted in increase inmutual conflicts which weakened their power.

4. Economic conditions became weak during the later Guptas.

5. Increasing ambitions of the provincial administrators became an importantreason for the downfall of the Guptas.

6. Another important reason for the downfall of the Guptas was too muchpower being given to the Feudal Lords.

9.9 Harshas Empire

Emperor Harshavardhan was the son of the ruler of Thaneshar Prabhakar Vardhan.After Prabhakar Vardhan his son Rajyvardhan ascended the throne. When Rajyavardhanlearnt of war between the rulers of Kanauj, Grahavarman, husband of his sister Rajshree,he fought against the King of Malwa Devgupta who had killed Grahavarman. Rajyhavardhandefeated Dev Gupta but the king of Bengal Shashank, who was also the friend of Dev Guptatreacherously killed Rajyavardhan. Under these circumstances Harsha became the ruler ofThanesar. He ascended the throne in 606 A.D. at the age of 16. Since his sister Rajshreedid not have any issues the throne of Kannauj also came into his hands. In this way hebecame the ruler of both Kannauj and Thanesar. His empire spread from the Himalayas inthe north to the river Narmada in the south, to Bengal in the East to the Indus in the west.He had political relations with China and Persia (Political Expansion Map).

Administrative Organization : Besides being a conqueror, Harsha was also anable administrator. With a few changes he followed the Gupta organization.

The pattern of Harshas administration was monarchical. The Emperor had the mostprominent place in the central administration. He was the chief of the army and thehighest court of appeal. The main aim of the rule was the welfare of the subjects. Therewere many ministers and secretaries to assist the Emperor. The King was not bound bythe decisions of the council of ministers. There were departmental heads like Mahabaladhikrut (Commander in chief) and Maha Sandhivigrahadhikrit (secretary of war and power).

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For administrative convenience the vast empire was divided into provinces. Provinceswere called Bhukti or Desh. The administrator of Bhukti was called Uparik. Only theprinces of the royal dynasty or members of the royal family were appointed to thesepositions. Each province was divided into various Vishayas (districts). The administratorsof these vishays were called Vishayapati. He supervised the Various activities of thedistrict. The smallest unit of administration was the village. Harsha had a large army.

The code of punishment during Harsha's period was very strict. There was capitalpunishment for some crimes. Due to the strict code of punishment the rate of crime waslow. The sources of information on Harsha have been derived from Bana's Harsha Charitaand the Chinese traveller Huen Tsang's travelogues.

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The Chief source of the state's income was land revenue. Generally land revenuewas one/sixth of the produce. Taxes could be paid in the form of grain. Besides marketsriver banks, tax on traders and fines were the chief sources of state income.

Harsha was one of the greatest rulers of India. It is generally believed thatHarshvardhan had control over the entire northern India. He was a great conqueror, ableadministrator and promoted the welfare of the people. He was a religious person and apatron of learning. Due to his victories and spread of religious works he has been calleda person with Virtues of both Samudra Gupta and Asoka.

Terms

Excavation : diggingNishka : Vedic period coins used for exchange.Monarchy : Hereditary rule of the king.Republic : A type of Government in which the head of the subjects/people

is elected.Janpad : State with defined boundariesEpic : Eloborate poetic composition related to a great character.Tripitaka : Compilation of Buddha's words and lectures. His close disciples.

Organized into Vinay Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhi DhammaPitaka.

Eight fold path : According to Gautam Buddha the path that leads to liberationfrom sufferings and attainment of Nirvana is called the eightfold path.

Tirthankar : Jain sages. Founders of the Jain religion.Five Vows : Five vows prescribed for Jain disciples- non injury (ahimsa)

speaking the truth (Satya), non-stealing (asteya) non-adultery(Brahmacharya) and non-possession (aparigraha)

Asteya : Donot take or think to take anybodies object without hispermission.

Aparigraha : (non-possession) - Refraining from acquiring materialpossessions.

Aryavarta : Northern India.Dakshinapalth : Southern India.

ExerciseI. Choose the right answer

1. Which of the following cities is not related to the Indus civilization?(i) Mohenjodaro (ii) Kalibanga (iii) Lothal (iv) Pataliputra

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2. Which was the foreign traveller came to India during Chandra Gupta Maurya'speriod?(i) Fahien (ii) Arian (iii) Hieun Tsang (iv) Megasthenese

II. Match the following :A B

1. Chandragupta Maurya 1. Kautilya2. Arthshastra 2. Mahatma Buddha3. Lumbini 3. Vikramaditya4. Chandragupta II 4. Magadh5. Ashoka 5. Kalinga war

III. Fill in the blanks :1. Founder of the Jain religion ................................ .2. Mahatama Buddha attained enlightenment under the ................. tree.3. India's two great epics are the ................. and .................... .4. Founder of the Gupta's dynasty ........................ .

Very short answer type questions1. Write the names and the number of Vedas.2. Write the names of the four chief cities of the Indus civilization.3. Who was Megasthenese? Name the book written by him.4. Write the names of the Chief Education Institutions of ancient India.5. Who was Kautilya? Write the name of the book written by him.6. Which Gupta ruler was succesful in repulsing the Huna attacks?Short answer type question1. Who discovered the cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa?2. Write about the new information received about river Saraswati.3. What is the importance of the Kalinga war in Indian history?4. State the political significance of matrimonial alliances formed by Chandra Gupta II.5. Write about the chief features of the administrative organization during the Gupta

period.6. Write about the expansion of Harsha's Empire.Long answer type questions1. Write about the contribution of the Indus civilization.2. Describe the Vedic civilization.3. State the chief features of Chandra Gupta Maurya's administrative organization.4. Write about Ashoka's Dhamma and mention its chief features.5. “Gupta period is known as the golden period of India history.” Justify the statement.6. Briefly describe the victory campaign of Samudra Gupta.7. Write about the administrative organization of Harshavardhan.

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10.1 Meaning of the Medieval period

The period between the ancient periodand modern period is referred to as the medievalperiod. Historians have called the 8th centuryA.D. as the beginning and the 18th century A.D.as the end of the medieval period. The 8thcentury A.D. is considered as the beginning ofthe medieval period because a lot of changeswere taking place in the social life of India andthese changes affected various aspects of sociallife in India. These changes influenced thepolitical and economic life of India viz. sociallife, religion, language, art etc. Therefore 8thcentury A.D. marks the beginning of themedieval period. Similarly the downfall ofMughal Empire and the advent of the British inIndia in the 18th Century also brought about

many changes. Therefore the 18th Century A.D. marks the end of the medieval period.

Sources of Medieval Indian History:

We have adequate archaeological and literary sources to study the history of thisperiod, which are as follows:

Sources of Medieval Indian Histo

Literary Sources Archae

● Rajtarangini● Tuzukh-e- Babri● Prithvi Raj Raso● Padmavat● Akbarnama etc.

● Monuments● Coins● Copper plates● Statues● Temples, Mo● and paintings

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Medieval India

We Will Study10.1 Meaning of medieval period

and sources of medievalhistory

10.2 Kingdoms of South India10.3 Kingdoms of North India10.4 Attacks of the Arabs and the

Turks10.5 Struggle with the Turks10.6 Delhi Sultanate10.7 Vijaynagar and Bahmani

Kingdoms10.8 Mughal Empire10.9 Opposition to Mughal

power in India

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After the death of Harshavardhan there was a political vacuum in India. The forcesof decentralization led to the rise of feudal powers which destroyed the political unityof India. There was the rise of new dynasties during this period. For example the GurjarPratihars, the Pala dynasty, the Chalukyas, the Parmars and the Chauhans in northern Indiawere the chief dynasties. In southern India the Pallavas, the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyasof Kalyani, the Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas were the chief kingdoms.

From the point of view of study, the medieval period has been divided into twoparts. The period from 8th Century A.D. to 12 th Century A.D. is known as the earlymedieval period.

10.2 States of South IndiaIn the 8th Century A.D. South India was divided into numerous small states. The

chief among them were the following:-

The Pallavas - The Pallavas rose in the southern region of river Krishna (AndhraPradesh and Tamil Nadu). Pallava Kings ruled for nearly 500 years. Narasimhavarman-I and Narasimhavarman II were valiant rulers. In due course of time the Pallavas enteredinto a continuous struggle with the Chalukyas, Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas. The Cholasdefeated the last ruler of this dynasty, Aparajit Varman and established their rule over thekingdom. The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system.

Chalukyas - The Chalukya dynasty ruledin southern India from the 6th Century A.D. tillthe middle of the 8th Century A.D. Its capitalwas Vatapi (Karnatak) from where the dynastyrose to political power. Therefore theseChalukyas are also known as Chalukyas ofBadami (Vatapi). The Chalukya kings tried tounite southern India into one political power.The prominent rulers of the Chalukya dynastywere- Pulakesin I, Kirtivarman, Mangalesh,Pulakesin II Vikramaditya, Tailap II,Vikramaditya V, Jaya Singh II, Someshwar I,and Vishnuwardhan. The Chalukya kingPulakesin II defeated the Cheras and thePallavas and expanded his Empire.

The Chola Empire - The most powerful ancient dynasty in Southern India was thatof the Cholas. The ancient Chola rulers have been described in the Sangam literature. Themost valiant ruler of the dynasty was Karikal. During his period the Chola Empire reachedits pinnacle. Raja Raja of this dynasty was also a famous and valiant ruler, who ruled fromabout 985 - 1014 A.D. During King Raja Raja's period his boundaries included the entire

Characteristics of ChalukyaAdministration:● The Chalukyas ruled for nearly

200 years.● Monarchical form of Government

was prevalant. The Emperor wasthe pivot of the administrativesystem.

● They gave the feudal lords theright to govern over theirconquered territories.

● The Village was the smallest unitof administration.

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southern India up to the Tungabhadra river. Parts of Maldives and Srilanka also formed hisEmpire. Rajendra III (1279 A.D.) was the last ruler of this dynasty. The Chola dynasty isknown in history for its administrative reforms. Their naval power was highly developedduring the period and they had a big naval fleet.

Characteristics of the Chola Administration

●●●●● The King was the highest official of the State.●●●●● Administration was done with the help of a Council of ministers.●●●●● The Empire was divided into provinces, Mandalams, Valanadus

(districts).●●●●● The smallest unit of administration was the Gram and this

important unit Grama was divided into 3 parts - i.e. (assembly ofthe common people) Sabha (intellectuals, Brahmins) Nagaram(trades, shopkeepers, sculptors). There were several committeesfor the administrative organization of the Grama.

●●●●● Agriculture and trade were well developed.●●●●● The chief source of the state's income was land revenue and tax on trade.●●●●● Trade and means of communication were developed and there was

foreign trade too.

Rashtrakutas - The name of the first ruler of the dynasty was Nanraj (630-650A.D. approx.) The second ruler of the dynasty Dantidurga ( 650-665 A.D.) made a lot ofefforts for the expansion of his Empire.

Rashtrakutas are known for their power and political expansion in south India.Krishna I, Govind II, King Dhruva, Dharavarsh Govind III, Amoghvarsha and Krishna IIwere the other prominent rulers of this dynasty. Their capital was at Mankhet. RashtraKutas had to fight consistently for establishing their domination over Kannauj inNorthern India against the Gurjar, the Pratihars and the Pala dynasty. This weakened theirpower. In about 973 A.D. Chalukya King Tailap II defeated the last Rastrakuta ruler KarkaII and established his domination over his empire.

Chera State - According to Asoka's rock edicts the Chera dynasty was establishedin the ancient period. Their kingdom included the Malabar, Trivendrum, and Cochin. Theharbours of the Chera Kingdom were big centers of trade. The Chola dynasty hadmatrimonial alliances with the Chera dynasty. They ruled for a very short period. In the8th Century A.D. the Pallavas, in 10th Century A.D. the Cholas and in the 13th CenturyA.D. the Pandyas established their control over the Cheras.

The Pandya Kingdom - The Pandya state was a prominent state among theancient Tamil states. Their capital was Madurai. Atikeshari Marvarman was a famousPandya ruler.

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10.3 The Kingdoms of Northern India

The chief kingdoms of the 8th Century A.D. of North India were as follows:

The Gurjar Pratihar - The Gurjar Pratihar dynasty ruled from the 8th to the11th Century A.D. They not only ruled for a long time over a large geographical area ofIndia but also checked the Muslim attacks from the Indus region into north India.Nagabhatt I was the founder of this dynasty. The rulers of this dynasty ruled over MadhyaPradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and some parts of Rajasthan for a long time. NagabhattI, Vatsraj, Nagabhatt II, Mihirbhoja, Mahendra Pala etc. were the prominent rulers of thisdynasty.

There was a struggle for control over Kannauj between the Pratihars and the Palasand the Rashtrakutas of the south for about 200 years. This is known as the Tripartitestruggle.

The Pala dynasty - The rulers of the Pala dynasty of Bengal established a bigempire in the middle of the 8th century in north India. The founder of this dynasty wasGopala. The Palas had conflicts with the Pratihars and the Rashtrakutas for control overKannauj . The prominent rulers of this dynasty were Dharmapala and Devpala. Thefamous Vikramshila University was founded by Dharmpala. It was an important center oflearning of Buddhism. The Pala rulers were patrons of learning and religion.

The Chalukya dynasty (Solanki) - The founder of the Solanki dynasty ofGujarat was Moolraj. Mahmood Gaznavi attacked Gujarat during the reign of Bhima I ofthis dynasty, in which Bhima I was defeated. After Bhimdev's death his son Karandev saton the throne in 1064 A.D. The most able king of the Solanki dynasty is considerded tobe Jaysingh Siddharaj. After Siddharaj, Kumarpal became the ruler. Jainacharya HemchandraAcharya was Kumarpala's advisor. After Kumarpala, Bhimdev II sat on the throne. Theattack of Monammad Ghori took place around this time.

The Parmar dynasty - The founder of the Parmar dynasty was Upendra Raj.The prominent rulers of this dynasty were Siyak II Munj, Sindhraj, Bhoja, Jai Singh, and

Udaiaditya. Siyak II defeated the Rashtrakutas and established anindependent kingdom in Malwa. King Bhoja was the most valiantruler of this dynasty. He was a great warrior, writer, poet, patronof learning and an intellectual. Many intellectuals and poets foundpatronage in his court. He got many temples and ponds constructed.During his reign the city of Dhara ( present district of Dhar in

Madhya Pradesh) was an important melting pot of literature and culture. This dynastyruled over Gujarat and Rajasthan along with Madhya Pradesh. This dynasty is chiefly

The famous Bhojpurtemple and lake ofBhopal belong tothe reign of RajaBhoj.

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known in history for its temple construction. During this period many temples ofarchitectural splendour were constructed.

The Chahman (Chauhan) dynasty - The rule of this dynasty spread fromthe central Sambhar region of Jodhpur and Jaipur. Later, this dynasty became famous asthe Chauhan dynasty. The first independent ruler of the dynasty was Vigrahraj II. Ajayrajof the same dynasty laid the foundation of the city of Ajaymeru (Ajmer). He got splendidpalaces and buildings constructed here. The last and most powerful ruler of the Chauhandynasty was Prithiviraj Chauhan.

The Chandel Dynasty - The Chandela rulers had supremacy over the Bundelkhandregion. The capital of this kingdom was Khajuraho. The prominent rulers of this dynastywere Nanuk, Yashovarman, Dhanga, Vidyadhar, Kirtivarman and Parmadridev. The reign ofthe Chandela rulers is famous for the progress made in the temple architecture. Thefamous temples of Khajuraho were constructed by the rulers of this dynasty.

The period from the 13th century A.D. to the 18th century A.D. is known as thelater medieval period. During this period, foreign invaders carried on their destructiveactivities one after the other (on India) which Indians strongly resisted from time totime. However after a hard struggle the invaders were able to establish their rule in India.

10.4 Arab and Turk Attacks

During the Rajput period, foreign invaders attacked India a number of times. Arabsattacked in the beginning but they could not achieve any major success. Mohammad bin'Quasim attacked Sindh where Dahir and later his queen struggled with courage andbravery, but they were defeated. After the death of Quasim, Junaed attacked the regionsof Rajasthan and Gujarat but the powerful rulers of northern India prevented him fromentering India. Pulakesin Raj the Chalukya ruler, the Pratihar ruler Nagabhatt II, LalitadityaMuktpeed and Yashovarma defeated the Arabs. The extremely powerful Indian kings werethe chief reason for the failure of the Arabs.

The invasion of the Turks into India began in the middle of the period between 974- 977 A.D. The chief among them were the invasions of Mahmood Ghazni and MohammadGhori.

The Invasions of Mahamood Ghaznavi - Mahmood was an ambitious rulerof a small principality of Western Asia. He needed money for his army. He had heardmany legends about Indian wealth. In order to plunder India's wealth, he invaded manyparts of northern India from about 1000 to 1027 A.D. Mahmood made 17 (seventeen)successful attacks on India. Punjab, Multan, Bhatinda, Nagarkot, Narainpur, Kashmir,Thanesar, Mathura, Kalinjar and Somnath were prominent centers of invasion. Look atthe above places on the given map. Ghaznavi destroyed many religious places, looted and

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carried away immense wealth to Ghazni. The famous writer Alberuni who came to Indiawith Mahmood Ghaznavi has written about the carnage of Mahmood's destruction. Hisattacks led to great economic and cultural loss to the country. The contemporary Hindurulers faced Mahmood Ghaznavi but were unsuccessful due to lack of political unity.Mahmood Ghaznavi died in 1030 A.D. (Approx.).

Mohammad Ghori's invasion - After 150 years of Mahmood Ghaznavi'sinvasion, Mohammed Ghori the ruler of a small principality, Ghor, in Afghanistan,invaded north west India. Taking advantage of the mutual conflicts of the Indian rulersGhori first invaded India in about 1175 A.D. and brought Multtan and Sindh under hisdomination. The objective of Mohammad Ghori's invasion of India was acquiring wealth

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and propagating Islam. During this time, the Hindu states in northern India included - theChouhan state of Delhi and Ajmer, the Solanki Kingdom in Kannauj, the Sena Kingdomin Bengal- Bihar, and the Chandel kingdom in Bundelkhand. In southern India Devgiri andWarangal and Hoysal were prominent states.

10.5 The Struggle with the Turks

Prithviraj Chauhan's struggle with the Turks:

Mohammad Ghori attacked Gujarat around 1178 A.D. where Bhimdev II was ruling.Bhimdev's army defeated Mohammad Ghori. Ghori had to run away to save his life. Hedid not dare to attack Gujarat again. After his victory over the Punjab, Multan and Sindh,he attacked the fort of Bhatinda on the Punjab border with a view to attack the prominent

Emperor Prithviraj Chauhan of north India.

Prithvi Raj Chouhan was an able, brave, valiant andpowerful Emperor. He had a fine army and armycommanders. Prithviraj faced Ghori in 1191 A.D. on theplains of Tarain, this is known as the first Battle of Tarain.Ghori's army could not withstand the massive attacklaunched by Prithviraj Chauhan's army and was forced toflee. Ghori also fled in a wounded state. Prithviraj did notchase the fleeing army as it was against the Rajput honourand tradition to chase a fleeing army. Consequently Ghorimanaged to escape. Ghori could not forget his disgracefuldefeat and again made preparations for the war and attackedIndia the very next year. There was another battle fought in

the plains of Tarain in 1192, which is known as the second battle of Tarain. Prithvirajfought valiantly and compelled the forces of Ghori to retreat but through diplomaticmanovers Ghori imprisoned Prithviraj Chauhan. Historians are not unanimous about howPrithviraj Chauhan died. However Hasan Nizami's view is that Mahmood Ghori got himkilled. In this manner Md. Ghori gained control over Ajmer and Delhi. Many Rajput kingssupported Prithviraj Chauhan but the king of Kannauj Jaichand did not support him dueto personal enemity. In about 1194 A.D. Ghori attacked Kannauj and defeated Jaichand.

10.6 Delhi Sultanate

The Slave dynasty : The first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanat was the Slavedynasty. The credit for its foundation goes to Qutubud-din Aibak. Md. Ghori died in 1206A.D. He had handed over the charge of the organization of the Indian states to his slaveand commander Qutub-ud- din Aibak. After the death of Ghori, Qutub-ud-din Aibakbecame the ruler of Delhi and its dominant states. He ruled from 1206 to 1210 A.D. Hewon many battles for his master Md. Ghori. He won over Hansi, Ajmer, Meerut, Aligarh,

Prithvi Raj Chauhan

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Ranthambhor. The credit of the construction of the Qutubminargoes to him. He died while playing Chaugan (Polo) in 1210A.D. After the death of Qutub-ud-din, Aramshah was declaredthe Sultan of Delhi but he could rule only for a few months.

Iltutmish

The most efficient ruler in the Slave dynasty was Iltutmish.He was an Ilbari Turk. Qutub-ud-din freed him from slavery asa reward of his bravery against Khokhars on the recommendation of Md. Ghori. Iltutmishbecame the Sultan of Delhi after removing Aram Shah in 1211 A.D.

There were many difficulties faced by Iltutmish after coming to the throne. Thenorth western frontiers were not secure due to Mongol attacks and other foreigninvaders. Yaldoz of Ghazni and Qubacha of Sindh and Multan along with the Subedars andSardars of the Sultanat were against him. He crushed the power of the rebel Subedars andSardars and formed a union of the Turks. Due to his far sightedness and diplomacy hesaved Delhi from the attacks of the Mongol leader Chengiz Khan. Iltutmish attackedRanthambor, Mandor, Nagod, Sambhar, Nayana, Jalore, and Gwalior to contain the risingRajput power. He won the Gwalior fort in 1232 A.D. The Sultan attacked Bhelsa andUjjain, parts of Malwa empire in 1234 A.D. and won them. Hedied in 1236 A.D.

Raziya Sultan (1236 A.D.-1240 A.D.)

The sons of Iltutmish were incapable of ruling. Thereforehe appointed his able daughter Razia as his successor. Raziyasat in the court and led the army. Crowning a daughter insteadof a son was a novel step in medieval history. In the whole ofthe history of the medieval period, Raziya was the first andonly Muslim woman Sultan of Delhi.

Amir Turk Sardars could not tolerate a women Sultan andstarted conspiring against her and revolted. The most powerfulamong the revolts was the one led by Altunia of Bhatinda,Raziya attacked Lahore to crush the revolt. In the war hermilitary commander Yakut was killed and Raziya was murdered.

After Raziya, Bahram Shah, Alauddin Masood Shah and Nasiruddin Mahmoodbecame the rulers of the Delhi Sultanat, only for name's sake while the real power wasin the hands of the Amir Sardars.

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-1286 A.D.)

Balban was bought by Sultan Iltutmish. Balban impressed his master with his ability

Iltutmish started anew Arab style CoinTanka and bronzecoin Jital. Tanka wasmade of silver andgold.

Raziya Sultan

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and services and was soon made a member of the Group of 40 Amirs, 'Chalisa'. Balbanserved Iltutmish and his successors with full loyalty. He sat on the throne in 1266 A.D.after the death of Nasruddin Mahmood.

Balban followed the policy of 'blood and Iron' for regulating his administration. Hedid not hesitate even a bit in finishing off his opponents. He organized a despoticmonarchical administrative organization. He believed in the divine right of kings. Hebelieved the position of the Sultan to be superior and glorious. He gave strict punishmentsto those who did not obey his orders. He reorganized the army for the security of hiskingdom and established a powerful espionage system.

The Khilji Dynasty

The Khilji dynasty was established by Sultan Jalal-ud-din Khilji in 1290 A.D. Heoccupied a prominent place among the other commanders of the armies of Delhi beforebecoming the Sultan. He killed Kaikubad the weak successor of Balban and became theSultan himself. After becoming the Sultan, he liberally distributed offices and giftsamongst his loyal supporters. He married his daughter to his nephew Allaudin and madehim his son-in-law. He appointed Allauddin as the Subedar of Kara and Manikpur. ButJalal-ud-din proved to be an inefficient and weak ruler. As a result there were revolts inthe state. In 1296 A.D. Alauddin killed Jalal-ud-din Khilji and himself became the Sultan.

Alauddin Khilji- (1296 A.D. to 1316 A.D.) -Allauddin was very ambitious.His desire was to become the Emperor of the whole of India. In order to accomplish thisaim, he attacked Sindh, Multan, Gujarat, Jalore, Jaisalmer, Ranthambor, Chittor, Ujjainand Chanderi and won them. In order to win over the four kingdoms of the south, Devgiri,Warangal, Dwar Samudra and Madura he sent his military commander Malik Kafur. Heorganized a big army and an espionage department. He crushed the power of the revoltingSardars and Amirs. In order to make goods available to his army at a low prices heimplemented market control in Delhi, which benefitted the people of Delhi. He alsoimplemented the rationing system He made Government granaries keeping in view thesudden changes in the weather. He fixed the rates of goods not on the basis of one'swishes but in accordance to the cost of production. Barni in his book Tarikh-i-Firozshaihas given a descriptive account of market control and a list of prices of goods. Excessivetaxes were imposed on farmers, traders and Hindus. Taxes were collected strictly andwithout respite.

With the death of Alauddin Khilji in 1316 A.D. the Khilji dynasty also declined.Meanwhile the danger of Mongol attacks loomed large over India. For about a centuryMongol danger remained a matter of concern for the Muslim Empire.

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Tughlaq dynasty

In 1320 A.D. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq removed the last ruler of the Khilji dynastyNasir-ud-din Khusro and became the Sultan of Delhi. He led military campaigns toWarangal Orissa and Bengal after becoming the Sultan.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 A.D.) - Juna Khan meaningMuhammad-bin-Tughlaq became the Sultan of Delhi by killing his father Ghiyasuddin. Hewas the most controversial Sultan of the Delhi Sultanat. He is considered to be an able,talented, progressive and intelligent Sultan. He became famous in world history due tohis ambitious plans. Increase in taxes in the doab region, transfer of capital from Delhito Daulatabad (Devgiri) issue of copper currency in place of gold and silver currencyplans of victory, were planned and subsequently taken back. Making of plans, implementingand then withdrawing them was a waste of time and money. Due to these plans and tortureof his subjects he has been called by various adjectives like mad, blood thirsty, egoist,adamant, 'before his time' and a 'mixture of opposites'.

Firoz Shah Tuglaq ( 1351-1388 A.D.) Muhammad bin-Tughlaq died in 1351A.D. After his death his cousin Firozshah Tughlaq became the next Sultan of Delhi. Aftercoming to the throne Firoz made successful attacks on Bengal, Jajnagar, Nagarkot, Thattaetc. He took several steps to remove the administrative complacency of Muhamman-binTughlaq's period.

Attack of Taimur Lang

The ruler of Samarkand Taimur was extremely brave, courageous and ambitious.The immense wealth of India lured him to attack India. Besides, the aim of his attack onIndia was religious. In 1398 A.D. he entered India with a large army and soon establishedhis control over Delhi. He had no desire to rule over India so after plundering, carnageand a great setback to agriculture he went back to Samarkand.

The Sayyed dynasty ( 1414 A.D.-1451 A.D.)

After the downfall of the Tuglaq dynasty the Sayyed dynasty established theirdomination over Delhi. In this dynasty Khizr Khan, Mubarakshah, Muhammed Shah andAlam Shah became the Delhi Sultans who did not make any special contribution worthmentioning in history.

The Lodi dynasty ( 1451-1526 A.D.)

In 1451 A.D. Bahlol Lodi became the Sultan of Delhi. He spent most of his timein making Delhi safe from his opponents. In 1489 A.D. his son Sikander Lodi becamethe Sultan. Sikander died in 1517 A.D. and his son Ibrahim Lodi became the Sultan ofDelhi. He had to face internal rebellion. He entered into a war with Rana Sanga of Mewarand Mansingh of Gwalior. His attack on Gwalior was successful.

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During the reign of Ibrahim Lodi the Delhi Sultanat was attacked by Babur, the rulerof Kabul. There was a tough battle fought at Panipat between the two armies in 1526 A.D.It is known as the first battle of Panipat. Ibrahim was killed. Delhi and Agra came underBabur's control. With Babur's victory, Delhi Sultanat also declined.

10.7 Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdoms

Alauddin-Khilji's period was a great blow to Hindu religion and culture of southIndia. Slowly the Hindus started protesting for self-defence, religion and their culture.The famous religious leader and intellectual of Southern India Madhav Vidyaranyacontributed a lot to this. The feeling of Hindu renaissance was responsible for theestablishment of the Vijaynagar Empire. The misgovernance and revolts during Muhammed-bin-Tughlaq's period gave momentum to this movement.

The credit for the establishment of Vijaynagar goes to two brothers Harihar andBukka. Their father's name was Sangam. Therefore their dynasty is also known as theSangam dynasty. When Muhammed Tughlaq attacked Warangal and won it, both thebrothers were imprisoned and sent to Delhi.

The Sultan was impressed with their ability and service and took them in his army.

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Both the brothers were sent to South India to crush the revolt. Here they came in contactwith the famous Saint Madhav Vidyaranya of South India. Here they were also inspiredto protect Hindu culture. In 1336 A.D. Harihar laid the foundation of the Hampi-Hastinavati Kingdom on the southern banks of river Tungabhadra. The city was namedVijaynagar, which later took the form of a big Empire. Look at the borders of VijaynagarKingdom in the given map.

Harihar I - The first ruler of Vijaynagar was Harihar. He ruled with the help ofhis brother Bukka and expanded his Empire. In a short span of time he extended hisEmpire from Krishna river in the north to Kaveri river in the south and till the sea coastin the east and the west. He established a firm administration.

Bukka - After the death of his brother Harihar he became the ruler of Vijaynagar.Traditional rivalry with the Bahmani Kingdom started with Bukka's period. Bukka wonthe Muslim state of Madurai and expanded his Kingdom to Rameshwaram in the farthestsouth. He did a lot of work for the protection of Hindu culture and took the title of 'Ved-marg- pak. He gave religious freedom to the believers of Jainism, Buddhism and Islam.He encouraged Telugu literature and centralized administration. He also sent hisambassador to China.

Harihar II - Harihar II became the ruler in about 1377 A.D. He took the title of'Maharajadhiraj'. He won the cities of Mysore, Kanjivaram, Chingalpur, Trichinapaly etc.He fought a battle with the Bahmani Kingdom. He invested most of his time in properorganization of administration and religious works. He got many Hindu templesconstructed and donated liberally. Sayan the famous scholar was his Prime Minister.

After the death of Harihar II in 1406 A.D. there was a war of succession among hissons Virupaksha I, Bukka II and Devraya I became the rulers. After this Ramchandra andVeer Vijay became the kings.

Devraya II - Devraya II was the most efficient ruler of the Sangam dynasty. Therewere two terrible wars with the Bahmani Kingdom during Devraya's period in whichVijaynagar had to face severe losses. Devraya attacked Lanka and collected taxes. Hepromoted sea trade. He patronized literature and Shaivism.

The End of the Sangam the dynasty - After Devraya II Malikarjun (1446-1465 A.D.) and Virupaksha II (1465-1485 A.D.) came to the throne but were weak rulers.In the end, the feudal leader of Chandragiri Narsingh Sulva in around 1486 A.D.established his control over the Kingdom and laid the foundation of the Sulva dynasty inVijaynagar.

The Sulva dynasty - The Sulva dynasty ruled over Vijaynagar from around 1486A.D. to 1505 A.D.

Narsihma Sulva (1486-1490 A.D.) - Narsihma Sulva was a brave, powerful

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and able ruler. He crushed the revolts taking place in the Empire and re-established hiscontrol over the states won by the Bahmani Empire. For the organization of a powerfularmy he bought fine horses from Arab traders. He patronized literature. During hisperiod, the famous book Jemini Bharatam was written.

Narsingh Sulva died in 1490 A.D. His son Imadi Narsihma became the ruler buthe was weak because of which the responsibility of administration came to Naras Nayakthe military leader.

The Tulva dynasty-

Veer Narsimha (1505-1509 A.D.) - after the death of his father Naras NayakVeer Narsimha killed Imadi Narsimha and laid the foundation of the Tulva dynasty inVijaynagar. Veer Narsinhma ruled till around 1509 A.D.

Krishna Dev Rai (1509-1529 A.D.) - The most efficient ruler of the Tulvadynasty was Krishna Dev Raya. He was the cousin of Veer Narsihma. He was a bravesoldier, successful military commander and able administrator. He established peace inhis kingdom and paid attention towards economic progress. He crushed the revolts andby defeating the neighbouring states, made his frontiers secure. He waged successfulwars against the Bahmani states - Orissa, Golkunda and Bijapur. He established friendlyrelations with the Portuguese for political reasons and promotion of trade. He was anadmirer of knowledge and art. His court had eight of the finest poets and artists. ThePortuguese traveller Peida has praised him a lot. Krishnadev Raya himself was a greatscholar of Telugu and Sanskrit. He wrote many books of which Ayukta Malyad andJambvanti Kalyanam are available even today. Due to his admiration of literature, he isalso called the "Bhoja of Andhra".

He got Mandaps and Gopurams with a hundred pillars constructed in various partsof his Empire. He got Vijay Bhavan, Hazaram temple and Vitthal temple constructed. Healso founded a city called Naglapur.

After Krishnadev Raya his cousin Achyut Devraya beame the King in about 1529A.D. Krishnadev Raya's son-in-law was also given a share in the administration. The stateof the kingdom started becoming bad. Many influential people started controlling power.Achyut died in 1542 A.D. His minor son Venkat I became the ruler but power remainedin the hands of his maternal uncle Salakraj Sirumal. After some time Achyut's nephewSadasivraj became the ruler, but he also proved to be a weak ruler. The real power togovern came in the hands of the minister Ram Rai.

Battle of Talikota- The minister of the Vijaynagar kingdom, Ram Rai was adiplomat. He wanted to follow a policy of planting seeds of disunity between the fiveKingdoms which were formed after the collapse of the Bahmani Empire. But all the fiveKingdoms - Bijapur, Bidar, Berar, Golkunda and Ahmednagar got united in the name of

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religion. All five Kingdoms together attacked Vijaynagar. In about 1566 A.D. the battleof Talikota was fought. The armies of Vijaynagar were defeated and Islamic armiesdestroyed Vijaynagar.

The AarVeedu dynasty - Ram Rai's brother Tirumal made Pendugonda the capitaland made an attempt to preserve the existence of the Vijaynagar Empire. In around 1570A.D. he removed Sadasiv from the throne and laid the foundation of the Aarveedu dynasty.Tirumal died in 1572 A.D. His successors were not able to take care of the decliningVijaynagar Empire and soon Vijaynagar Empire was divided into many small independentstates.

Administrative Organization of VijaynagarThe form of administration of Vijaynagar Empire was despotic monarchy. The

powers of the king were un-controlled and unlimited. The basis of the state was Hindureligion. The administration of Vijaynagar was divided into Central, provincial and localadministration.

In the Central administration of Vijaynagar the Emperor, the ministers council, theKing's assembly and the prince played an important role.

The Emperor had the chief position in the State and was called the Raja. All powersof the state were concentrated in his hands. He himself administered the state. Declarationof war and treaty, appointment of officers and workers, organization of law and justiceetc. were in his hands.

There was a central secretariate for the administration of the state in which therewere various departments, their Chairmen, secretaries and officers.

The officials and workers of the state received land in lieu of salaries. Thisarrangement was called the Naykat arrangement. Military officials were also givencultivable land. Military officers were called Nayaks and the land that was given wascalled Amaram.

The king was the highest judge for the administration of justice. He himselfappointed the judges. Provincial officers (Prantapati) in the provinces and Panchayats inthe villages administered justice. No delay was done in the administration of justice.Hindu code of justice was prevalant. The laws of criminal cases (Faujdari) were severe.Amputation of hands feet and death punishment were mostly given.

The state made efforts for the development of agriculture and irrigation. Spiceswere exported. The state encouraged irrigation work. The construction of canals andponds was considered to be a nobel deed.

The land revenue was determined according to the fertility of the land. Landrevenue was not uniform throughout the state. Grazing tax, marriage tax, property tax, taxon trade, garden tax, tax on handicrafts were imposed by the State. The subjects were

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happy inspite of heavy taxation.

Provincial administration - The Empire was divided into provinces. Provinceswere divided into Kottams or Valanadus. Kottam was a district which was divided intoNadus. Nadus were divided into cities. A Village was the smallest unit of the state.

The responsibility of the province was in the hands of a member of the royal familyor powerful feudal lord.

Local Administration - The smallest unit of administration was the village.There was representative body ( Pratinidhi Sabha) for the administration of the villagewhich had the representatives of the village. The Pradhan ( chief) of the Gram Panchayatwas called Iyengar. He was also given some powers to give justice and punishment. Healso collected royal taxes. The Gram Sabha could donate or sell the land under it. TheGram Sabha was given the power to decide some diwani ( revenue) and Fauijdari(criminal) cases.

The Bahmani KingdomAfter the establishment of the Delhi Sultanat in the north, the various states of the

south remained independent. Due to the difficulties in communication and being locatedin distant regions the Sultans of Delhi remained away from the politics of the south.Alauddin Khilji was the first Sultan of Delhi who estalished his supermacy over thesouthern states through force. But after his death, the southern states became independentonce again. Muhammad bin Tughlaq made efforts to establish his supremacy over thesouthern states, and also became successful but within a short span of time he had to facecontinuous revolts. During Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign the Muslim amirs of the southrevolted and the Bahmani Kingdom was founded. The Bahmani Kingdom emerged as apowerful Muslim state.

The Muslim amirs of south India became angry with the policies, oppression andplans of the Delhi Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq and revolted. The armies of the Sultanwere unsuccessful in crushing the revolt. The revolting people established their controlover Devgiri. In about 1357 A.D. Hasan Gangu Kohsan Abdul Muzzafar sat on the thronewith the name of Allaudin Bahman Shah. The Bahmani Kingdom flourished in south Indiafrom 1347 to 1526 A.D.

The inefficiency of the Sultans, and torture of the people, continuous wars with theneighbouring states, struggle between the southern and foreign amirs, the murder ofMahmood Gavan, differences amongst the Amirs and other causes led to the decline ofthe Bahmani Kingdom.

10.8 The Mughal EmpireBabur, who laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India was the son of the

ruler of Fargana state in Central Asia and a descendant of Taimur. During the time ofBabur's attack there was political instability in north and south India. There was

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predominance of mutual fightings, struggle and conspiracies. Babur took full advantageof this political disorder.

Babur attacked the borders of India and he was succesful. In 1526 tanks came tothe plains of Panipat where Ibrahim Lodi the ruler of Delhi faced him. Ibrahim was killedin the battle and success came to Babur. Babur got control over Delhi and Agra.

Babur wanted to crush the Rajput power to rule over India. On the other hand theRajput rulers, under the leadership of Rana Sanga, were determined to out the Mughalsfrom India. There was a fierce battle between the armies of Babur and Rana Sanga in1527 A.D. on the plains of Khanwa which Rana Sanga faced bravely but due to the useof tanks and the Tulguma warfare Babur got a decisive victory.

Babur died in 1530 A.D. Babur has described his life, the beauty of India andcontemporary politics in his book 'Tuzukh-e-Baburi' .

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Humayun - After the death of Babur his elder son Humayun sat on the throne in1530 A.D. Humayun had to face the discontent of his relatives, brothers, Rajputs,Afghans, his subjects and also an emptry treasurey. The Afghan Sardars were his rivalsamong whom Sher Shah was the chief. Sher Shah defeated Humayun in 1539 A.D. in thebattle of Chousa and forced him to leave Delhi. During the times of difficulty the Rajputking of Amarkot, king Veersal gave him asylum. Akbar was born in Amarkot in 1542 A.D.

Sher Shah Suri - Sher Shah Suri was the son of an Afghan chief of a small Jagirin Bihar. Even after the defeat at the hands of Mughals in Panipat and Ghagra the Afghanswere not completely crushed. Sher Shah reorganized them and removing Humayun fromthe throne of Delhi conquered Delhi. Humayun had to live a life of exile for about 15years. During this period Sher Shah and his successors ruled over Delhi. Sher Shah'sbrief period of rule has an important place in Indian history because he restored the lostAfghan pride and rekindled the old administrative system with fundamental reformswhich proved to be the foundation for the future. Sher Shah gave utmost importance tothe welfare of the people and laid the foundation of a strong administration, theadvantage of which went to the Mughals. He started many works in the field of militaryadministration, judicial system, and land revenue system which were later adopted byAkbar. Sher Shah divided his empire into Sarkars and the Sarkars into Parganas. He madereforms in the currency system. The silver coin started by him was known as the'Rupaiya'. In the field of education he constructed Madarsas. For travellers he madearrangements for Sarais (Guest houses) and wells and got trees planted. Sher Shah gotthe entire land surveyed and measured. He reconstructed the old royal road from Kolkatato Peshawar the 'Grand Trunk road' (Present G.T. road), from Agra to Rajasthan andGujarat and in the south to Burhan he got new roads constructed. He had a strongespionage system.

In 1545 A.D. Sher Shah Suri while laying the seige to Kalinjar died when a firebroke out due to explosives. The successors of Sher Shah Suri proved to be ineffective.Chief Sardars and officers started fighting amongst themselves.

Humayun took advantage of this situation With the help of the Shah of Persia,Humayun won over Kandhar, Kabul, Punjab, Delhi and Agra and became the ruler. Heslipped from the staircase of his library and died in 1556 A.D.

Akbar (1556-1605 A.D) - At the time of Humayun's death Akbar was with hisguardian Bairam Khan in Gurdaspur district in Punjab at a place called Kalanaur. Bairamkhancrowned him there in Kalanaur in 1556 A.D. Akbar was 13 years old at that time.

Soon after the death of Humayun the Afghan ruler Adilshah Suri's minister Hemucaptured Delhi. He assumed the title of Vikramaditya and sat on the throne of Delhi. In1556 A.D. Akbar reached the plains of Panipat with his guardian Bairamkhan. There wasa fierce battle between Hemu and Akbar's forces. This is known as the second battle of

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Panipat An arrow struck Hemu's eye from the enemy's side. Hemu was caught andBairamkhan killed him. In this way Akbar gained control over Delhi and Agra.

In the beginning Akbar ruled under the guardianship of Bairamkhan but startedruling independently in 1560 A.D. In 1562 he abolished the system of enslaving the warprisoners and in 1563 abolished the pilgrimage tax. In 1564 A.D. he abolished Jeziyawhich was imposed on Hindus. In this manner he was able to make Hindus his friends.

Akbar followed a policy of diplomacy and friendship to win over entire India. Akbarwon Malwa, Jaunpur, Chinnaur, Meerut, Gondwana, Ranthambhor, Kalinjar, Marwar,Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Kabul, Kashmir, Sindh, Orissa and many parts of south India. Aftera long struggle in 1567-1588 A.D. he conquered Chittor. Rajputs gave a tough challengeto Akbar under the leadership of Jaimal and Fatta. The prominent powers whichchallenged Akbar's authority was from Gondwana under Rani Durgavati and the ruler ofMewar Maharana Pratap. Though both the powers were defeated by Akbar's army stillAkbar had to struggle and work hard to win their kingdoms.

Akbar was a clever ruler. He understood that Rajputs were loyal and served theirmasters even at the cost of their lives, it was therefore necessary to work in associationwith the Rajputs. He did not have the courage to finish the entire Rajput states thereforehe followed a separate policy towards the Rajputs. Akbar befriended the Rajputs and tookfine and loyal and brave Rajputs in his service, which prolonged the duration of Mughalempire. Akbar gave high mansabs to some Rajput kings like Bhagwandas, Raja Mansingh,Birbal and Todarmal. Akbar also established friendly and matrimonial alliances with theRajputs. Akbar married the princess of Amer (Jaipur) Bikaner and Jaisalmer. In thismanner Rajputs had an important contribution in the realization of Akbar's dream of apowerful and extensive empire.

He waged wars against the Rajput Kingdoms who did not accept his soverignity.Akbar established a universal religion. Din-e-Illahi. He got as Ibadatkhana constructed inFatehpur Sikri where he held religious discussions with the followers of all religions.

Jehangir (1605-1627 A.D.) - After Akbar's death his son Jehangir sat on thethrone. Jehangir was born in 1569 A.D. Jehangir got married many times, prominentamong which was the marriage with the widow of Sher Afghan–Noor Jahan.

Jehangir was so influenced by the personality of Noorjahan, that he entrusted theentire responsibility of administration on Noor Jahan. The result of this was that his lastdays were spent in sorrow. One of Jehangir's son Khurram (Shah Jahan) revolted due towhich the situation of the state became a cause of worry. Jehangir died in 1627 A.D. andShah Jahan acquired the throne after killing his brothers.

Shah Jahan (1627-1658 A.D.) - After Jehangir, Shah Jahan became theEmperor. Soon, he had to face and crush the revolt of Khanjahan Lodi, a revolt of feudal

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Lord Jagatsingh of Bundelkhand and Nurpur. He fought a war against the Portuguese anddefeated them. In order to strengthen his empire he attacked Ahmednagar, Golkunda, andBijapur in south India. The Mughals also had to fight against the Maratha armies. The foursons of Shahjahan were Darashikoh, Shahshuja, Aurangzeb and Murad. The war ofsuccession for the throne started during Shahjahan's period itself, in which Aurangzebwas successful. He imprisoned Shahjahan. Shahjahan was an admirer of architecture, sohe got a number of buildings constructed. The money spent on the construction ofbuildings was collected by the imposition of heavy taxes on the subjects, due to whichpeople had to face several severe hardships.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707 A.D.) - The war of succession between the sons ofShahjahan started during his period itself. Aurangzeb emerged victorious in the war ofsuccession and sat on the throne after killing his three brothers. He imprisoned hisfather in the Red Fort of Agra where he died after 8 years in 1666 A.D.

Aurangzeb made the Rajputs, the Jats, the Sikhs and the Marathas his rivals due towhich there were continuous revolts in the kingdom. Shivaji fought against him due tohis anti-Hindu policy and laid the foundation of an independent Maratha Kingdom. TheSikh Guru Teg Bahadur was killed after torture. After this, Guru Gobind Singh organizedthe Sikh army (Khalsa) to face Aurangzeb. Rajputs like Durgadas Rathor challengedAurangzeb.Tarabai gave a tough resistance to Aurangzeb for the independence of Marathas.

Aurangzeb died in 1707 A.D. and with him the decline of the Mughal empire alsostarted. Though the Mughal Empire continued in Delhi from 1707 to 1857 A.D. but itwas only in name.

10.9 Opposition to Mughal Power in India

Babur had laid the foundation of the Mughal empire in India in 1526 A.D. bydefeating Ibrahim Lodi. The Mughal empire established in 1526 A.D. continued till 1707A.D. From 1707 A.D. - 1857 A.D. the Mughal empire was only in name in Delhi from1526 to 1707 A.D. Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jehangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb followedall methods and tactics, diplomacy and war, friendship and alliances in order to keep theentire India under their sovereignity in which they were successful. Kings from differentparts of India kept challenging them. In order to deal with the problems of the state -Hindu Rajput kings had two options - surrender like other Rajput kings had in front ofAkbar, and become a part of the Mughal organization and live a dependent life. TheSecond option was to maintain their independence and defend the glory of their nation.For following this policy they had to be prepared for fierce wars and to leave allpleasures and family life. To protect their values, thoughts and respect of India someRajput kings determined to follow the other path, i.e. they decided to fight against theMughals. These Indian kings and rulers neither befriended nor surrendered, but gave a

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tough challenge to the Mughal rulers with bravery. The prominent among them were therulers of Mewar Rana Sanga, Maharana Pratap, Rani Durgawati of Gondwana, the Maratharuler Shivaji, and the Sikh leader Govind Singh.

The ruler of Mewar Maharana Pratap

Rana Sanga gave stiff resistance in the plains ofKhanua. Unfortunately, Rana Sanga was defeated but till hewas alive he did not accept defeat. After the death of RanaSanga in 1528 A.D. Babur led his expedition forward.

After the death of Rana Sanga Mughal power wasresisted by Maharana Udai Singh (1537-1572 A.D.). AfterUdai Singh's death in 1572 A.D. his son Rana Pratapbecame the ruler of Mewar. He had to face many problemsat home and outside after becoming the king. He spent atough time with his father in jungles, valleys and mountains.He was very popular with the people of the mountainousregion. The People of the hilly region addressed him as

Kika (small child). Mewar had faced many attacks of the Mughals therefore theadministration of Mewar was not satisfactory. There was no social and political stability.The Mughals had established their control over many parts of the kingdom due to whichthe income and prestige of the state declined. Maharana Pratap gave a tough challengeto Akbar till he lived. Rana Pratap started organizing Mewar to give the Mughals a fight.He organized feudal lords (Samants) and Bheels. For the first time Rana Pratap includedthe Bheels in his army and honoured them by giving them high positions. He shifted hisresidence from Kumbhalgarh to Gogunde so that Akbar could not attack it easily.Through public relations he created awareness against the Mughal power. These effortsbrought unity and the entire Mewar rose against the Mughal power.

The battle of Halidighati (1576 A.D.) - The independence of Mewar was asore in the eyes of Akbar. Rana Pratap refused to accept the sovereignity, friendship oroffer of entering into a matrimonial alliance with Akbar. Akbar made several attempts toconvince Rana Pratap but was not successful. In the end Akbar had to resort to a war todestroy the independence of Mewar. War started between the two armies on 21st June1576 A.D. Akbar's armies were led by Mansingh. Thousands of soldiers on both the sideswere killed. Rana Pratap with his aides Lunakarna, Ramshah, Tarachand, Poonja, HakimSur reached near Mansingh's elephant piercing the enemy's armies Rana's horse Chetakkept his front feet on the elephant's tusk. Rana attacked Mansingh with a spear but heescaped. Enemy forces encircled Rana, but the brave Rajputs whisked Rana away fromthe enemies. Wounded Chetak died on the way, but the war went on. Akbar's armiesconquered Gogunde.

Maharana Pratap

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Rana Pratap had to lose a part of his Empire but he did not accept defeat. He carriedon war against the Mughals and managed to win back many of the lost areas of his state.He made a new capital at Chawan and established good administration in the state. Hedied on 19th Jan 1597 A.D. Akbar remained unsuccessful in suppressing Maharana Prataptill the end. In this way Maharana Pratap fought with bravery and courage till his deathand crushed Akbar's ego.

Rani Durgawati - Rani Durgawati was, one of themost a valiant warrior's of medieval Indian history. She facedthe Mughal emperor Akbar's greed for expansion of the Empirewith bravery, courage and patience. Rani Durgawati a the Chandelprincess of Mahoba. She was trained in horseriding, armamentsand kisher (iron claw) right from childhood. She was marriedto the king of Garha Dalpat Shah. The kingdom of Garha alsoincluded the northern districts of present Madhya Pradesh.

Dalpatshah transferred the capital of his state from Garhato Singorgarh. About eight years after his marriage Dalpatshahdied. Durgawati had to shoulder the responsibility of the stateas guardian to her minor son Veernarayan. The Rani managedthe affairs of the state with courage and bravery. She cleverly repilsed Baj Bahadur's(ruler of Malwa) attacks. When Akbar the ruler of Delhi heard about the economicprosperity of Garha state, he sent Asaf Khan with a big army to attack Garha state forextending his empire. Rani Durgawati decided to fight rather than surrender. Asaf Khanattacked Garha in 1564 A.D. Rani Durgavati along with her son Veernarayan facedAsafkhan. Veernarayan was wounded.

Rani Durgavati bravely fought against the forces of Asaf Khan but in the end waswounded seriously. In the wounded state brave Durgavati was unable to continue the warbut she did not want Akbar's soldiers to imprison and humilate her. Therefore she killedherself with a sword and her son Veernarayan died while fighting. Finding themselvesunsafe the women of the palace committed Jauhar. In this manner Asaf Khan conqueredGarha and obtained the kingdom, palace and money and wealth. Though Garha wasdefeated, Rani Durgawati through her bravery proved that Emperor Akbar could notconquer a woman's empire without fighting the war on Garha. Garha is a blot on Akbar'sadministration. He imposed a war on a peaceful state and won it.

Chatrapati Shivaji - The strongest opposition to the Mughal Empire was givenby the Marathas under the leadership of Shivaji. In the rise of Shivaji and the Marathasthe Mughals lust for increasing their Empire, anti Hindu policy and religious orthodoxpolicy were the important factors.

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Religious leaders like Saint Tukaram, Ram Das, Vaman Pandit and Eknath sowed theseeds of a national religion among the Marathas. Thefeeling of national religion played an important role inarousing the feeling of nationalism among Marathas.

Maharaja Shivaji was born on 20 April 1627 A.D. inthe hilly fort of Shivner in Maharashtra. His mother'sname was Jeejabai and father's name was Shahji Bhonsle.Shivaji received the education of the Hindu religion andrites from his mother and teacher and guardian DadajiKonddev. During his childhood he also received militaryeducation. He learnt the lessons of honesty, charracter,bravery and religiousness from his mother. Shivaji didnot like his father serving under the Sultan of Bijapur.Therefore he decided to fight against the Sultan and

organized an army. He won the first Fort Torana in 1646 A.D. from Bijapur. He got fortRaigarh constructed five miles east of Torna. Hereafter he won one fort after the other.He won over Chakan, Kondana, Purandar, Javali, Konkan etc.

The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan under the pretex of talks for a peace. Shivajianticipated Afzal Khan's designs and killed him.

Aurangzeb made several plans to trap Shivaji, but was not successful. Disappointedafter many defeats Aurangzeb sent the famous militry commander Raja Jai Singh againstShivaji. There were many confrontations between the armies of Jai Singh and Shivaji butas there was no outcome both the sides signed the Treaty of Purandhar in 1665 A.D.

Shivaji went to meet Aurangzeb with Raja Jai Singh but Aurangzeb trecherouslyimprisioned him. Aurangzeb wanted to kill him in jail. Shivaji pretended to be sick andto get cured, started distributing sweets amongst saints. One day Shivaji and his sonShambhaji escaped from Agra in one of the sweet baskets. Aurangzeb became extremelyangry on Shivaji's safe escape.

Shivaji crowned himself in 1674 and became Chhatrapati. He made Raigarh hiscapital. After his coronation Shivaji organized the entire state and the states administrativesystem. Shivaji's administration was based on public welfare. In his administrationAshtapradhan was important. By Ashtapradhan is meant the eight ministers who wereresponsible towards Shivaji. He died in 1680 A.D.

In management and administration Shivaji attained the highest success. He built apowerful state. Shivaji played an important role in routing out Mughal power fromsouthern India. After Shivaji his successors Shahji, Raja Ram Sahu, Tarabai etc. continuedtheir struggle against the Mughals. Later, the Peshwas gaves serious challenge to the

Chatrapati Shivaji

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Mughal power at Delhi. The goal with which Shivaji laid the foundation of the MarathaState was carried forward by the Maratha Commanders who worked in the direction ofnational interests.

Sikhs

The followers of the religion established by Gurunanak arecalled Sikhs. By the 17th century Sikh religion had become thereligion of many artisans and farmers of Punjab. Gurunanak wasthe first Sikh Guru. After him other Sikh leaders (Gurus) tookthe Sikh community ahead. The last Sikh Guru was Guru GobindSingh. The initial Gurus paid attention only towards the religiousaspects but slowly the Sikh Gurus also became their militaryleaders. After the death of the seventh Guru, Aurangzeb tried totake advantage of a quarrel for succession among the Gurus. Meanwhile the power of theSikh Gurus was steadily increasing. To check this rising power Mughal administration in1675 A.D. ordered Guru Tegbahadur to be hanged which made the Sikh community veryangry with Aurangzeb. Guru Gobind Singh the tenth Guru organized the Sikhs into amilitary organization to fight against the Mughal armies. Guru Gobind Singh establishedan organization called Khalsa in 1699 A.D. Khalsa was a casteless organization in whichthere was a provision to include everyone without caste discrimination. The members ofthe Khalsa organization had to adopt the five K's - kada (Bangle), kripan (Sword), kesh(hair), kaccha (under pant) and kangha (comb).

He started the practise of prefixing the word 'Singh' among Sikhs. The Sikhcommunity put many challenges before the Mughal Empire.

Causes of the decline of the Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire, the foundation of which was laid by Babur, declined from theperiod of Aurangzeb. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 Mughal power declinedrapidly. The chief causes of the decline of this massive empire were as follows:

Aurangzeb's Empire, his policys and war - Aurangzeb's policies can mainly heldresponsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire. His orthodox religious policy and antiHindu policy was one of the chief cause. Due to his policy of opression he made the Jats,the Rajputs, the Marathas, the Sikhs etc. his enemies. He oppresed the Hindus, due towhich he stopped getting the support of the Rajputs. The Marathas and the Jats gavesevere blows to his Empire, due to which the Mughal Empire declined.

To bring the kingdoms of the south under his subordination Aurangzeb fought for25 years with different states of South India, in which he had to face severe loss of menand money. These wars shook the foundation of the empire.

Guru Govindsingh

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Excessive Taxes - The Mughal rulers imposed heavy taxes on the people for theirpleasures and wars, paying which became impossible for the people. There were voicesof revolt among the common people.

Vastness of the Empire - The vasteness of the Mughal Empire in and outsideIndia also became a cause of decline of the Mughal Empire. A vast Empire could haveonly been regulated through a centralized authority. Due to a weak central authority theMughal Empire also started breaking up. Akbar had saved the Empire by his diplomacybut his successors were not successful in this.

Revolts of Chieftains and Prince - Revolts of Loyal Chieftains and Princesalso helped in the decline of the Mughal Empire. The revolts of royal leaders likeSaleem, Khusro, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb also gave a blow to the unity of the Empire.

War of Succession - The war of succession for power also harmed the MughalEmpire. There was no certain rule of succession in Muslim royal power. There weremany claimants to the throne due to which the successor was decided on the point of abayonet. The war of succession between the sons of Jehangir and among the sons ofShahjahan for power aided the decline of the Mughal Empire.

Moral decline of Mughal rulers - Early Mughal rulers were loyal and virtuoustowards their state. But the Mughal rulers after Jehangir were pleasure seeking andcomplacent.

Religious Policy - The religious policy of the Mughals was based on Islam. Mostof the rulers were staunch followers of Islam. They supported the spread and growth ofIslam, harmed other religions and their followers, due to which the Mughal Empire couldnot get their support.

Rise of Hindu powers - The rise of new Hindu powers also played a role inthe decline of the Mughal Empire. The Marathas, the Jats, the Sikhs, the Rajputs etc.reorganized themselves and rose against the Mughal empire.

Continuous wars and autocratic rule, decline of military power, moral decline of Amirs(nobles), groupism and other reasons also aided the decline of THE Mughal Empire.

Terms

Amirs : Turk leaders

Subedars : The highest officer of a Suba.

Policy of blood and iron : The policy of sword and war.

Tulguma warfare : Military formation of the Mughals.

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Jeziya : A tax levied on non-Muslims

Mandalam : Province

Valanadu : District

Gopuram : Entrance door of a temple

Wazir : Chief military commander or Prime Minister.

Jauhar : Self immolation collectively done by Rajput womenfor guarding their self-respect and honour.

Din-e-Illahi : A religious policy started by Akbar. Din-i-Ilahi means areligion of worship of one God.

Ashtapradhan- : Shivaji's committee of eight ministers which gave adviceto the Maratha king in matters of administration

Khalsa : Guru Gobind Singh organized the Sikhs and gave thema military form which was called Khalsa which meanspure.

Exercise

I. Choose the correct alternative:

1. Mahmood Ghazani was the ruler of-

(i) Multan (ii) Ghazni

(iii) Bahmani (iv) Iraq

2. The founder of the Slave dynasty was-

(i) Iltutmish (ii) Mohammad Ghori

(iii) Qutub-ud-din Aibak (iv) Balban

4. Who injured Ghori in the Ist battle of Tarain-

(i) Prithiviraj (ii) Krishnaraya

(iii) Govindraj (iv) Deepakraj

5. Which empire did Harihar and Bukka found?

(i) Bahmani Empire (ii) Vijaynagar Empire

(iii) Delhi Sultanate (iv) Mohammad Nagar

6. Who killed Afzal Khan-

(i) Shivaji (ii) Raja Ram

(iii) Sahu (iii) Tarabai

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II. Fill in the blanks :1. The ancient chola rulers have been described in the ...................... .

2. The founder of the Parmar Dynasty was ...................... .

3. Mahmood Ghaznavi made ........................ successful attacks on India.

4. Balban followed the policy of ....................... for regulating his administration.

III. True or false :1. The name of Shivaji's mother was Jijabai.

2. The battle of Haldighati held between Akbar and Rani Durgavati.

3. After Jehangir, Shah Jahan became the Emperor.

4. Humayun was the elder son of "Babur."

5. Krishna Dev Rai had wrote a book named "Jambvanti Kalyanam".

Very short answer type questions1. How many times did Mahamood Ghaznavi attack India?

2. Who laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India?

3. Who founded the Vijaynagar Empire?

4. Who was the founder of the Bahmani Empire?

5. Who started the religion 'Din-I-Illahi?

6. Who was Guru Gobind Singh?

Short answer type Questions1. Who was Iltutmish? How did he overcome his difficulties?

2. What was the market policy of Allaudin?

3. How did the Tughlaq dynasty establish power over the Delhi Sultanate? Examine.

4. Write the contribuiton of Shershah's administrative organization in Indian history.

5. Write the contribution of Prithiviraj Chauhan in India history.

6. Describe why Maharana Pratap is famous in Indian history.

Long answer type questions1. What were the objectives of Mahmud Ghaznavi's and Mohammed Ghori's attack on

India? Write the causes of their success.

2. Describe the administrative organization of King Krishna Dev Raja and its impacton the people.

3. Examine the Rajput and religious policy of Akbar.

4. Who were the Indian Kings and rulers who resisted the Mughal power in India andwhat role did they play? Describe.

5. Write down the causes responsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire.

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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�11.1 Meaning of cultural trends and

chief cultural trends11.2 Cultural trends from the an-

cient period to the Rajput pe-riod- Literature, painting,architecture, sculpture, danceand music, the performing arts

11.3 Cultural trends from the Sul-tanate to the Mughal period-Literature, painting, architec-ture, sculpture, dance and mu-sic fine arts.

We Will Study11.1 Meaning of cultural trends and

chief cultural trends.

Cultural trends familiarize us with theancient historical background. The History of acountry is only important when its culturalparameters are studied on a scientific basis.Indian culture is one of the world's most ancientcultures. Since ancient times, India has beenknown in the world for its rich culture. Its chiefspeciality, along with continuity, are forces ofantiquity, spirituality, unity and integrity. Indianculture is a valuable asset of human society.The meaning of culture in itself is very broad.

The stages of development of every civilization attain a level where it establishesmental, moral and spiritual ideals. They intermingle in such a way in man's comunity lifethat the entire society gets absorbed in its major and minute specialities.

The creative progress and flourishing of major and minor elements of civilization iscalled culture. The major elements of a progressive culture are its quest for truth,expression of beauty and love for humanity. It is easy to outline the broader elements ofcivilization but for the actual understanding of culture, is possible only through unbiasedresearch and deep thinking. In a nutshell we can say that if civilization is the body thenculture is its soul.

11.2 Cultural trends from the ancient period to the Rajput period

The contemporary social, cultural and political life can be understood throughliterature, painting, architecture, sculpture, dance and music and other performing arts. Bycultural trends we mean the form of Indian culture which includes literature, paintingarchitecture, sculpture, dance, music and other per-forming arts. In this chapter we will study these in asequential manner.

Literature : Literature is considered as themirror of society. Indian literature is as prosperousand glorious in Indian history. Literature is written

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Major Cultural Trends

Indus Script

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evidence. Indian literature has a vast store of Sanskrit literature.

The Indus civilization had the knowledge of script. We find many evidences of thisthough the script still remains a mystery for scholars. Some scholars have claimed to havedeciphered it. More that 2500 inscriptions has been found here till now. The longestinscriptions have 17 alphabets. The Indus script seems to be pictographic. But there is astronger possibility of it depicting alphabets. The development of a script among the Indusinhabitants points towards their literary interest.

Vedic period literature is very prosperous from the creativity point of view. Theliterature of this period has a very lively description of ancient life and values. Vedicliterature includes- the Vedas, the Brahamanas, the Aranyaka, the Upanishads, the Vedanta,the Epics, the Smritis, the Puranas etc. The Vedas are four in number-the Rigveda, theYajurveda, the Samveda, the Atharvaveda. The oldest of Vedic literature is the Rigveda.During the epic period epics like the Mahabharat and the Ramayana were written whichdepict the social and political life during the period. The Ramayana was composed byMaharishi Valmiki and the Mahabharat was composed by Vedvyas.

Jain literature has three branches. Religious books, philosophical and secularwritings. These chiefly have prose, legends, grammar and dramas. Out of these most of thecompositions are still in the form of manuscripts and are found in the Chaityas of Gujaratand Rajasthan. The compositions are-Angas, Pangas, Prakirn, Cheda, Sutra and Malsutra.Towards the last stages while writing discourses, the Sanskrit language was used instead ofPrakrit. The work in grammar and poetry writing in Sanskrit contributed a lot to the growthof this language. The prominent books in Jain literature are Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu,Parishisht Parwan of Hemachandra.

Buddhism has greatly enriched the Pali and Sanskrit language. Buddhism has Tripitikasmeaning three baskets- Vinaypitika, Sutta pitika and Abidhamma pitika. Vinaypitika containsthe rules of daily life. The Sutta pitika contains virtues and Buddha's discourses and sayings

Vedic Literature

Rigvedic Literature● Rigveda

Later Rigvedic Literature● Yajurveda● Saamveda● Atharvaved● Brahmanas● Aranyakas● Upanishads

Sutra peLiteratur● Srautash● Grahast● Dharma

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on the four eternal truths.Abhidhamma pitika containsthe philosophical developmentof teachings of Buddha.Buddhist literature also includesDeepvansh, Mahavansa, DivyaDan, Milind Panha, MahabodhiVansa, Mahavansa likeAryamanjushree, Mulkalp etc.

There are sufficient evi-dences of Mauryan period lit-erature. Through the inscrip-tions of Asoka, it seems thattwo types of scripts were used-

Brahmi and Kharosthi. Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra during this period. During the sametime the third Buddhist council compiled the tripitakas and composed the contents of theAbhidamma pitaka. Many scholars believe that most of the Acharsutra and Bhagvati Sutra ofJain religion were composed during this period.

During the Sunga Satvahana period there were scholars like Patanjali who wrote theMahabhashya on Panini's Ashtaadhyas and presented the rules of Sanskrit language revisedform. Kalidasa's Malvikagnimitram describes the Ashvamegh yagya of Pushya Mitra Sungaand Agnimitra's war with the state of Vidharbha. The famous book Charak Samhita waswritten during this period. The Buddhist book "questions of Milind" (Milind panha) waswritten by Nagasena.

The Gupta period was the Golden age of litera-ture. The Gupta period gave Sanskrit the status of a statelanguage. The form in which literature flourished duringthe period of the Gupta rulers is unparalleled. During thisperiod there were literary creations in many fields ofscience and knowledge. Smriti Literature was composedduring this period. Yajanvalkya, Narad Smriti, Kavya Smritiare the chief among them. The Ramayana and theMahabharat were written in this period. The Bud-dhist philosopher Asanga composed the MahayanSutranka and Yogacharya Bhoomi Shastra. Vasubandhcomposed the Abhidarma Kosha. The chief Jainwriters were Jenchandra, Siddhasena and Devnandini.From the Gupta period literature, we can understandthat the prevailing education system must have been

Author literary workHarisena - Allahabad pillar inscriptionKalidas - Abhigyan Shakutalam,

Malvikagnimitram, Meghduta,Kumar Sambhava, Raghuvansham,Ritu Sambhara

Vishakhdatta - Mudrarakshsa, Devi ChandraguptamShudraka - Mricha KatikamVajjika - Kaumudi MahotsavaVishnu Sharma- PanchtantraAryabhatta - AryabhatiyamVarahmihir - Vrihta Sahita

Author BooksBharvi KiratarjunyaMagha Shishupala VadhaKalhan RajtaranginiVilhan Vikramank CharitraParimal Navsahasank CharitraBallah Bhao Praband

The introduction of the principle ofzero and the decimal system is to thecredit of the mathematicians of theGupta period, in which the Kapithyaschool (present Kayatha, Ujjain) es-tablished by Varahmihir had an impor-tant role

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excellent. The Nalanda University was established during this period. Kashi, Mathura,Ayodhya and Pataliputra were the chief centers of education.

Harshavardhan respected the scholars. Banabhatta was a great writer of the periodwho wrote two books-Harsha Charitra and Kadambari. Harshavardhan himself wrote threeSanskrit plays-Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika. They are important in Sanskrit litera-ture. In Harsha's court besides Bana, Mayur, Haridutt,Jayasena, Matang, Divakar were otherfamous writers and poets.

The creation of literary and extremely flowery language work was on the rise duringthe Rajput period. Literature was predominantly romantic. Rajput rulers were scholars ofthe highest order. King Munja, Bhoja, Amoghvarsha were prominent among them. KingBhoja's intelligence and poetic skills were well known. During this period books werewritten on medicine, astrology, grammar, sculpture and various other subjects.

Along with North India there was a lot of literary creation worth mentioning in SouthIndia as well. Pulkesin's vassal wrote a book called Shabdavatar. Scholar Udaidev wrote abook called Jainendra Vyakaran. South India made a special contribution to Sanskritliterature during the Pallava rule.Bharvi who lived in Travancore wrote the epic 'Kirat Arjun'.

Mehandra Verman I wrote a book "Matvilas Prahsan". There was growth of Tamillanguage during the time of the Pallavas and the Cholas. The most or famous writer of theTamil period was Jaigondar who wrote Kaligtuprani. Kamban wrote the Ramayana in Tamil.The famous books of Ramanuj are-Shree Bhashya, Vedarth Sangraha, Vedant Deep etc.Kanchi was the chief centre of learning where people from far off places came foreducation.

Painting : Expression of man's thoughts aredepicted artistically through paintings. The richtradition of Indian painting reflects the sensitivityof Indian art towards colours. During differentperiods paintings have been made by the paintersof contemporary society. In India paintings of pre-historic times can be seen on various rocks andstones. In the Bhimbetka caves near Bhopal, wecan see fine example of this art.

The People of the Indus valley civilization had a knowl-edge of painting. We have enough evidence of this. Manypaintings can be seen in the utensils and seals found here.Painting was also done on the walls of the buildings. In thepaintings natural scenes and animals both can be seen. Col-ours were also used in the paintings.

On the basis of their literature it can be said that these people expressed their feelings

Specimens of paintings on the potsof Indus civilization

Rock Art of Bhimbetka

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on walls, utensils and also through embroidery on the clothes.

Mauryan period painting grew as folk-art. Paintings weredepicted on Mauryan buildings and pillars. Some of the paintings inthe Ajanta caves belong to the 1st century B.C. The painting ofChhadat Jatak in cave No. 10 is worth mentioning.

Painting was based on scientific lines during the Gupta period.The finest examples of paintings are in the Ajanta caves. These havebeen included in the world heritage sites. These paintings are mostlybased on religious themes. They depict the Buddha and theBhodisattva. Descriptive scenes from Jataka stories can also beseen. These paintings are original, lively and impressive. The paintingsof this period can be seen in the caves of Bagh (in M.P., Dhardistrict). The themes of the pictures in these caves are worldly. During this period beautifulcolours have been used in the pictures.

During Harsha's period paintings were made on cloth. References to skilled paintersduring marriage celebrations have been found. These painters have painted various scenes.Women on such occasions, painted on utensils of clay.

During the Rajput period the art of painting had developed fully. During this periodmany regional styles of painting had developed. Such as the Gujarat style, the Rajputanastyle etc. The Gujarat style has scenes depicting the Jain life style and religion. In theRajputana style, romantic scenes of Radha Krishna have been depicted. Frescoes were madeto decorate temples and palaces. The art of miniature painting also developed during thisperiod. These paintings were made to decorate books.

Architecture : Architecture throws light on the customs and traditions of life andculture and the organizations of that period. The history of a period can be understood bythe buildings constructed during that period. Architecture depicts the local, economic,religious, political and cultural history of the period.

The excavations in the Indus valley provide information about the contemporaryarchitecture. People of this period were experts in the field of architecture. Big granaries,well planned houses and cities, big palaces, ports, the great bath throw sufficient light onthe architecture. The modern developed cities can be compared to the buildings of theperiod. Covered drains, doors and windows of buildings, direction away from the main road,kitchen inside the building, bathroom, adequate provision of ventilators, construction ofordinary and state buildings etc. are unique examples of architectures of the Induscivilization. It is an evidence of the first urbanization of towns in India.

The knowledge of architecture existed during the Vedic period. Different aspects oflife have been mentioned in the Rig-Veda and the many other Vedas. There is a referenceto Yagyavedi, Havan Kunda (for performing yagyans), Yagyanshalas, stone palaces, buildings

Paintings ofAjanta caves

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with pillars, ashrams etc. We find references to big royal palaces and buildings, thearchitecture of which is splendid.

Mauryan architecture includes the palaces at Patalipurta rock cut sanctuaries on theBarabar hill and Nagarjun hill. Asoka'spillars, Buddhist stupas constructed byAshoka, Chaityas, Viharas are prominentamong them. Rock cut caves built duringthe period have an extremely glossypolish which reflects the expertise ofthe period. There is a reference toeighty four thousand stupas beingconstructed during this period by Asoka.Of these Sarnath, Bodh Gaya and Sanchistupas are famous.

The bestspecimens ofMauryan archi-tecture are thepillars of Asoka,which were con-structed by himfor propagationof the the teach-

ings of Baudha Dhamma.

These pillars are nearly 20 in number and located in various parts of India, such asSarnath, Prayag and Kaushambhi in Uttar Pradesh. Pillars have been found in Lumbini andNigilva in the plains of Nepal. Besides these in Sanchi, Lorya, Nandgarh and at various otherplaces too. Besides these, Asoka pillars have been found in Sanchi, Lorya, Nandgarh andVarious other places. The capital on the pillars was extremely creative.

The famous architecture of the Mauryan period are the pillar edicts of Sanchi(Madhya Pradesh) and of Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh. The cave edicts of Barabara, Nagarjun(Bihar), the Stupas at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) in Bodhgaya (Bihar).

There was a change in the style during the Sunga and Satvahana period from theMauryan period. Wood and brick was primarily used. During this period the use of stonesstarted.

Architecture was at its peak during the Gupta period, the specimens of which can beseen. The special achievement of the period was in the field of temple construction.Temples were constructed with stones and bricks. The temples constructed during the Guptaperiod had flat roofs.

� Inscriptions : The written description regarding contemporaryadministration, war and public life. These are descriptions writtenon stones, pillars, caves, rocks etc.

�Stupa: Inverted bowl shaped dome constructed with stones orbricks to keep Buddha or Boddhisatvas relics safely.

�Chaitya: Temples of collective worship.�Vihars: Maths for Buddhist monks.�Caves: Caves constructed by cutting rocks.

Sanchi Stupa

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The first 'shikhar' was constructed at the Dasavatara in the Devgarh temple (JhansiU.P.). After the construction of this temple, the construction of shikhars in the templesstarted. Many of these temples still exist- such as - the Buddhist Shrine in Sanchi, inVidisha district of M.P., Bheetargaon in Uttar Pradesh and the temple at Deogarh are a fewexamples. The Ajanta caves no 16,17 and 19 are believed to be of the Gupta period. Udaigiricaves (in Vidisha dist. M.P.) Bagh caves (Dhar, M.P.) were also constructed during theGupta period. The sculptors of the Gupta period were experts in working with iron andbronze. The iron pillar at Mehrauli in New Delhi is an exceptional specimen of technology.It was built in the 4th century A.D. and has not rusted till date.

Architecture was at its peak during Harsha's period. Harsha got a building constructedfor holding assemblies at Kannauj which had two massive rooms. In each of the rooms1000 people could be seated. Besides, buildings, Stupas and Viharas were constructedwhich throw light on the architecture of that period.

In the early medieval period rulers constructed magnificient temples to show theirsplendor. Therefore the architecture of this period can be seen in the temples. The mostprominent among these are the group of temples at Khajuraho which were constructed bythe Chandella rulers. There are nearly 30 Brahmanical and Jain temples in Losia near Jaipur.The Kalika devi temple at Chittorgarh is worth seeing .The Jain temples at Mt. Abu are finespecimens of the period.

Besides north India many temples were constructed in the South and East India. Thetemples constructed during this period are classified into two styles - the Nagar style andthe Dravidian style.

Prominent temples of Rajput periodName PlaceKandariya Mahadev Khajuraho

Dilwara temple Mt. Abu

Lingraja temple Bhubaneshwar

Mukteshwar temple Bhubaneshwar

Sun temple Konark

Rath temple of Tamil NaduMahabalipuram

Brihadeshwar temple TanjoreKandariya Mahadev temple of Khajuraho

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The Nagar style temples were mainly constructed in north India and the Dravid a styletemples were constructed in south India. The difference between the Nagar and Dravidian styletemples can be seen in the 'shikhars' of these temples. In the Nagar style the 'shikhar' is nearlyspiral. On the top is found a round dome and a kalash. In the Dravidian style temples the'shikhars' are rectangular, constructed by placing rectangular blocks, one over the other.

Sculpture : "The Art of making statues". With reference to art, traditionally India usesthe wood 'sculpture'. Sculpture is handwork, the expertise of hand and intellect.

Very few stone statues have been found in the Indus civilization. The reason behindit could have been availability of less stones in the adjoining regions of civilization. Thestatues of this period have been made from baked clay, lime stone, sandstone and slatestone.

The practice of making metal statues started during this period. A bronze statue of adancing girl has been found in Mohenjodaro. A statue of a bronze chariot of this civilizationhas also been found. The two-wheeled chariot is being pulledby two bulls and a man is driving the chariot. The artistsdepicted their artistic skills on seals in the form of elephants,rhinoceros and Buffaloes. The Humped bull is found on mostof the seals found here. Other animals on the seals includedogs, pigs, monkeys and other birds and animals. The claystatues of women are found in large numbers in the Induscivilization. The sealb of the Indus civilization are rectangularand spherical. They are made of 'Gomed', 'Chirt' and clay.Copper seals have been found from Desalpur in Lothal. On oneof them is Pasupati Siva seated on a stool surrounded by anelephant, a cheetah, a rhinoceros, a buffalo etc.

During the Mauryan period the art of sculpture grew.The sculpture of the Mauryan period has a Persian influence.

Nagar Style Temple Dravida Style Temple

Bronze statue of a dancer

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Some scholars consider it to be Indian influence. The Asoka npillars, the animal statues inthe capital, beautifully decorated with plants, point towards the sculpture of the stonestatues that have been found from Pataliputra, Mathura, Vidisha and other regions. A distinctglossy polish can be seen on those. The statues of the Yaksha and Yakshinis are verybeautiful and realistic.

A new era started in the field of sculpture during the 1st century B.C. Mention of theMathura and the Gandhara schools of art has been found during the Kushana period. Thecaves of the period are sculpted with various Gods-Goddess, Yakshas, Nagas, Sharduls etc.The Haledourus's Garuda-pillar found at Basenagar in Vidisha is a unique example of Sungaart. The Gandhara style developed near Pushkalavati, Taxila, Purushpur (Peshawar) whereasthe Mathura art developed in Rajasthan and the Uttar Pradesh regions. The coins of theKushan period show Greek influence.

Sungas and Satvahanas : While renovating the stupas at Sanchi and Barhut gotrealistic statues constructed on the Sungas and Satvahavas of gateways and pillars whichgives information about their excellent sculpture base.

Two main schools of sculpture developed during the Kushana period-Gandhara artand Mathura art.

Characteristics of Gandhara art :

● The subjects of Gandhara art wereIndian while the technique wasGreek.

● Statues were mostly built of slate.

● Creased clothes have been shownon the statues.

● Mahatma Buddha is also shownseated on a throne.

Features of Mathura art:

● Remains of Buddhist, Jain andBrahmanical all three religionshave been found at Mathura.

● The statues of Lord Buddha andBoddhisatvas have been found inthe Mathura art.

● The statues of Buddha are covered with drapery.

● Statues have been constructed using sand stone.

The art of sculpture attained new heights during the Gupta period. The statuessculpted during this period were completely Indian and Greek influence was fading slowly.

Buddha Statue inGandhara style

Buddha Statue inMathura style

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The statues of the period started showing spiritual beauty. In the Gupta period statues,emphasis was laid on shape, pose, emotions and beautification due to which they becamemore realistic and lively. The most important accomplishment of the Gupta period was thesculpting of Dasavatar statues of Vishnu and many other statues of Brahmanical religion.Sculpture during this period reached maturity and became more refined.

No separate information about sculpture during Harsha's period has been found. Hegot Stupas and Viharas constructed for the propagation of Buddhism. The art of sculptureflourished moderately in that period.

Early medieval period : The statues of Buddhist and Brahmanical religion of thistime are comparatively more beautiful. The statues of the period have more religiousexpressions. The influence of Tantric ideology during the later Rajput period can be seen onthe statues. Multihanded statues started to be sculpted during the period. In this the fourhanded statue of Vishnu and statues of Goddesses are famous. Linga statues of Shiva arefound in large numbers. Many statues of Boddhisatvas of that time have been found in NorthIndia. The double storeyed Kailash temple at Ellora is a fine example of sculpture in whichthe temple has been chiseled out of rock. The Shal Bhanjika Statue of the early medievalperiod to the 10th -11th century found from Gyaraspur in Vidisha is famous in the world forits decoration and expression. Presently it is kept in the Gujari palace museum at Gwalior.Beautiful specimens of stone and metal sculpture have also been found from southern India.Various Gods and Goddesses have been sculpted. The Natraj bronze statue is famous forbeing artistic.

Dance-music: The tradition of dance and music is very ancient in India. The artistexpresses his art through dance. Whereas music was the need for entertainment and wasplayed on religious and cultural occasions.

Clear evidence of the Indus civilization having a tradition of dance and music areavailable. The bronze statue of a dancing girl found from Mohenjodaro shows that dancewas a form of recreation. The Dholak found on seals also gives an example of the existenceof music during the period. In this manner we can say that the art of music and dance musthave been popular in the Indus civilization.

Dance and music was extremely popular among the Aryans during the Vedic period.The art of music was in a developed form during the Rigvedic period. Vocal and Instrumen-tal, both were well developed. In instrumental music, wind and string instruments were used.These were-the veena, the dundubhi, the flute, the shringa, the shell, the mridanga etc.Singing and dancing was organized during celebrations. This practice continued in the laterVedic period.

Music and dance continued to be the chief forms of entertainment during the Mauryanperiod. Mention of singers, instrumentalists and dancers of the period has been found. Evenafter the Mauryan period music and dance continued to be the means of entertainment.

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The art of dance and music prospered during the Guptaperiod like in the earlier periods. During this period too, peoplewere fond of music. Dance and music were practised in thecontemporary period during Vasant Utsav, Kaumidi Utsav,Deepotsav etc. Information of ‘Ganikas’ in that period is alsofound; their job was to dance and sing. The Gupta rulers them-selves patronized the artists. Samudra Gupta himself was anaccomplished Veena player. In order to keep this memory alivehe got coins minted showing him playing the veena. In the Baghcaves an important scene of dance and music of the Gupta period has been found, which isa symbol of the splendour of dance and music in that period. From Malvikagnimitra wecome to know that there were art institutions for unparting education in music in towns.There were Acharyas (teachers) in the towns for teaching dance. In MalvikagnimitraGanadas is referred to as a music dance Acharyas (teacher). In this way ample evidence ofmusic and dance during the Gupta period is found.

During Harsha's period a tradition of dance culture was maintained in the socialorganization. Dance and music was a source of entertainment in that period.

In the early medieval period too, the tradition of dance-music was carried on.Dancers danced and played instruments in the assemblies of Rajput kings.

Other Fine Arts

Other Fine arts include dramas. ‘Rangoli’ (ground dry colours of stone and drawing de-signs with them) and tribal art can be mentioned. They can be seen as a part of the Indian tradi-tion from most ancient times.

Fine arts were in practice during the Indus civilization. The ‘Agnivedica’ built on araised platform found at Rakhigahri, decorated bricks found on the floor of Kalibanga madeof baked brick, statues, decorated ornaments, glossy paint on the utensils and circles onthem. geometrical lines and depiction of birds and animals, sacred symbols of well beinglike the swastik, chakra, the sun etc. throw light on the practice of fine arts of thecontemporary society. Besides a place like a theatre has also been mentioned in thecontemporary time which was probably used for drama, dance and music.

A mention of fine art has been found in the Vedic period. During this period folkculture developed along with religion. During this period also sacred symbols, decorationof buildings art of magic and references of Yagyavedika have been found.

Folk art was prevalent during the Maurya period. There were many people who per-formed shows for entertaining people. References to dancers, people imitating voices to en-tertain, dancing on ropes, people working in dramatics for livelihood have been mentioned.

Fine arts were also prevalent during the Gupta period. Beautiful depiction on coinsas the best example of this period. Many dramas were written in the contemporary period

Picture of Samudra Guptaplaying the Veena

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in Sanskrit. Interesting themes have been brought alive through these dramas, romanticsongs along with these, wood sculpture, stone sculpture, metals sculpture, talisman, ivoryornaments are examples of contemporary art. Ornamentation in caves, temples, paintings onthe walls, dancing girls, sentries with spears, statues with elaborate hairstyles. yaksha, birds,animals, depiction of fountains etc. are unique examples of the same. Theatre alsodeveloped in that period. Terms like 'Prekshagraha' and 'Rangshala' have been used fordramat schools.

Harsha Period - The growth of fine arts continued in the Harsha period as well.These arts were prevalent in the early medieval period also. References to nata,

magicians, craftsmen who worked with ivory are found in context with beautiful art work.In the same way beautiful decorations are found on Rajput coins. Statues made on the wallsof temples, raga-ragini, pictures of actors-actresses, plants flowers and animals are alsothere.

Besides, historical and Puranic dance drama also had an important place in the earlymedieval contemporary art.

11.3 Cultural trends from the Sultanate period to the Mughal periodThe growth of literature continued in the medieval period. The literature of the period

throws ample light on theMughal period organization. In-dividualistic history writing hadstarted in that period.

The creation of religiousand secular literature startedduring the period. The Dohasand puzzles written by AmirKhusro are popular even today.Sanskrit literature was patronized by Hindu rulers. (Vyayapar, Warangal , Gujarat). Turkishsultans were interested in Persian literature.

Many languages prevalant today developed during the Mughal period. Compositionsof Namdev, Ramanand, Guru Nanak, Kabir etc. have a place of special importance in Hindi.Meera used words from Rajasthani and Maithli. In Bengal the Ramayana and the Mahabharatwere translated from Sanskrit to the Bengali language. In MaharashtraNamdev and Eknathwere the most famous saints and literary writers of Marathi. Mughal period rulers wereadmirers of literature. All of them patronized scholars. Literary writing was done in Persianand the Turkish language during the period. The prominent works of the period are asfollows-

Urdu literature developed the most during the Mughal period. Though Urdu evolvedduring the Sultanate period initially, Urdu was known as 'Zaban-i-Hindarva'. Akbar got manySanskrit books translated into Persian.

Author BooksBabur Tuzukh-e-Baburi (Baburnama)Gulbadan HumaynamaAbbas Khan Tarikh-i-ShershahiAbul Fazl Akbarnama, Ain-i-AkbariMalik Mohammad Jayasi PadmavatSurdas SursawaliTulsidas Ramcharitmanas

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Painting :

The art of painting declined during the Sultanate period. Painting was looked downupon by the Sultans. Still painting remained alive in Gujarat, Rajasthan and regions ofMalwa. Scenes related to religious and day to day life were presented. Slowly the Malwaand the Rajasthan School of art developed. The books written on 'birch bark' in Gujarat byJain monks have a very high quality of small illustrations. In Bengal and Bihar toomanuscripts written by the Buddhist monks had small images drawn by using leaves. Thepaintings drawn on the temples of South India also used leaves.

Mughal paintings were started during the rule ofHumayun. Akbar gave an organised form to Mughalpaintings. He established a separate department for thepainters and famous painters were housed there. Thefirst Mughal period painting collection in Mughal stylepainting is the Hamzanama which is also popular asDastan-e-Amir Hamza, the specialty of these paintings isthat they were made form the juice of foreign plants,trees and their leaves and flowers. Minutest details ofdecoration and architecture and images of women areshown. In Rajasthani paintings with decorative elements.Rajmanama, the Ramayana and Akbarnama are illustratedmanuscripts of the period. Fresco painting started forthe first time during the Akbar period.

Jehangir's period is known as the golden period of Mughal paintings. Jehangirhimself was a painter. Jehangir established a painting school (Chitrashala) under theguidance of the famous painter Akarizh. During Jehangir's period portrait painting, naturalscenes and paintings related to people's lives started. Jehangir also gave titles to the foreignpainters which includes famous painter Ustad Mansoor who painted birds and portraitpainter Abul Hasan.

During Shahjahan's reign borders and underlines in paintings progressed. Aurangzebconsidered painting to be against Islam and banned it. Therefore painting in the courts cameto an end and painters settled elsewhere. In this way styles of regional paintings developed.

Architecture

The influence of Islamic architecture can be clearly seen on the medieval architec-ture. In the buildings constructed during the reigns of various Sultans and Mughals, therewas intermingling of Indian architecture with Persian, Turkish and Indian styles and thearchitecture prevalent in other Islamic countries. Primarily mosques, mausoleums, palaces,massive gates (Torans), domes, mehrabs and minars were constructed in Islamic architec-ture.

Mughal period painting

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The Qutub-ul -Islam mosque in Mehrauli (Delhi) was con-structed in 1139 A.D. and is believed to be the first mosque inIndia. The Qutub minar was constructed during the Sultanateperiod. It is 238 ft. high and narrow towards the top. At variousheights there are open balconies, which makes it distinct. Themosques of the period had minarets on four sides.

There are enough evidences of Mughal period architec-ture. In the history of architecture a new era started during theperiod. Scholars have called the new architectural style as Mughalarchitect. The Mughal style developed as a result of fusionbetween foreign and Indian styles. Hence Mughal period architec-ture has a mixed influence of Jain, Buddhist, Rajput, Persian,Baghdad styles.

The engraving of diamonds in white marble, pietra dura andrunning water in the palaces are some of the salient features ofMughal architecture. The chief architectural places were Mosqueof Kabuli Bagh, Mosque of Panipat, Babri Mosque at Ayodhya,

mosque at Agra fort.

Not much progress in the field of achitecture was made duirng Humayun's reign.During his reign two mosques were constructed at Ferozabad in Hissar. Shershah showedgreat interest in architecture. The most important architectural structure of Shershah'speriod is a mosque constructed on a raised platform in the midst of a lake at Sasaram inBihar. A beautiful amalgamation of Indian and Islamic architecture can be seen here. DuringAkbar's period there was an intermingling of Persian style with Hindu and Buddhistarchitectural styles. Buildings of Akbar's period were constructed of red sandstone. Akbargot Fatehpur Sikri built. The chief features are the intermingling of Chapakar and Dharnikstyles. Fatehpur Sikri's Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan -i-Khas, Agra Fort, Palace of Jodhabai, PanchMahal, Jama Masjid and Buland darwazaare specimens of Akbar's period archi-tecture. Jehangir got Akbar's and Itmad-ud-daula's mausoleum built. RajaMansingh's palace at Gwalior andJaisingh's palace at Jaipur are unparal-leled examples of architecture.

Shajahan's period is known as thegolden age of Mughal architecture. Thechief features of the architecture ofthe period were carved Mehrabs, andminars. The famous buildings of

Taj Mahal

Qutub Minar

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Shahjahans period are the Red fort, Delhi, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Jama Masjid and the TajMahal at Agra. The biggest accomplishment of the period is the Taj Mahal when architecturereached its pinnacle of progress. The Taj Mahal is a 313 Ft. high square mausoleum madeof white marble which has been built on a 22 Ft. high platform. The four corners of theMausoleum have a minar each. It is two storeyed, on top of a dome.

The Gurudwara of Harminder Sahib at Amritsar is a unique creation of that period. Itwas constructed between 588 and 1601 A.D. After Shahjahan, Mughal period architecturestarted declining.

Sculpture:

There was a splendid development in the field of sculpture in south India during themedieval period. Statues and sculptures were used to decorate the interiors and outer partsof the temples. Islam did not believe in idol worship. This affected medieval sculpture.. Theart of sculpture began during Akbar's period. Sculpture was also encouraged during reignJehangir's. In Agra fort Amar Singh's and Karna Singh's statues were put up beneath thewindow. The Elephant gate entrance at the palace of Fatehpur Sikri is decorated with twomassive elephants. The art declined during Auangzeb's reign. On the whole sculpture did notflourish during the medieval period which affected its development.

Dance and Music

The tradition of dance and music of the ancient period was carried forward in themedieval period. Some books were compiled on dance and music. Of these Bhoja,Someshwar and Sarangdev's Sangeet Ratnakar are very famous books. In the later periodmany more books on music were written. Jaydev's Gita Govind in the 13th century can becalled an important step in this direction. Bhakti or devotional music received moreimportance in the medieval period. People sang with devotion the "bhajans" (devotionalsongs) of Meerabai, Tulsidas, Kabirdas and Surdas.

Hindustani music was introduced to new instruments and Ragas in the Sultanateperiod. Though the Quran prohibits music it was encouraged from time to time by Sultansand Khalifas. The most famous musician of the period was Amir Khusro who has writtenabout his music in the book Noor Siphr. The book tells that Indian music touches the heartand the soul. It not only affects human beings but also hypnotizes animals. Deer stand stillwhile listening to the music and are easily hunted. Amir Khusro invented new ragas throughthe fusion of Indian and Persian music. The originator of the qawwali was Amir Khusro. Dueto new trends in music like Khayal and Tarana there were changes in the form of music inthe contemporary period. Music was the chief means of recreation.

The art of dance and music flourished during the Mughal period. Babur himself wasfond of music. In Tuzukh-i-Babri description of music meetings is found. Humayun andSher Shah Suri were also fond of music. The Mughal Emperor Akbar patronized musicians.He himself played exquisitely on the Indian instrument Naggarah. He was interested in the

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science of music. Of the nine gems in Akbar's court the most renowned was Miya Tansenwho was an accomplished singer. Abul Fazil writes about Miyan Tansen that " a singer likehim has not been in India for the last thousand years." Tansen received his education inGwalior. Baba Haridas of Vrindavan was his Guru. Besides Tansen 36 other singers receivedpatronage at Akbar's court. of these Bazbahadur, Baizbaksh, Gopal, Haridas, Ramdas, SujanKhan, Mianlal, Baiju Bawara were prominent. In course of time Dhrupad singing wasreplaced by Khayal singing. During the Mughal period in Jehangir's reign Khurram, Dad,Makhu Chatur Khan, Hamja etc. were prominent musicians. Similarly during Shahjhan'sreign Ramdas, Jagannath, Sukhsen and Lal Khan were prominent musicians. After the deathof Shahjahan the art of music declined as Aurangzeb was against music.

The classical styles of Indian dance can be seen in the medieval period. Of theseBharatNatyam, Kuchipuddi, Kathakali, classical styles were prevalent in south Indianregions. Bharatnatyam and Kuchipuddi dances were based on Krishnalilas. This was con-fined to the Bahaman families of southern Indian. Whereas Kathak was initially confined toUttar Pradesh, Rajasthan Punjab and Madhya Pradesh. Dances were based on Krishna Lilasand Puranic stories. Dances and music were a part of the courts.

Fine arts.

The creative expression continued during the medieval period. Ras Lilas were stagedin Vrindavan and Mathura. During this period, besides epics, dramas were also based onhistorical characters. Vijaynagar's ruler Harihar II's son Veerupaksha wrote a play NarayanaVilas and Unmata Raghav. Goswami composed Vidaghmadhav, Lalit Madhav and DankeliChandrika. In the same sequence Ramchandra wrote a drama Jagannath Vallabh. In stagingdramas social and religious dramas were given preference. Calligraphy also developedduring that period. Besides decorated utensils, decorated wall carvings on minars andmausoleums, clothes of Zari, Kashidakari, art of Pachikari, carved fountains, carpets etc.throw light on the art of the period.

Terms

Arynyakas : To be read in the forests

Brahmanas : Explanation of Vedic mantras based on Vedas.

Upanishad : The knowledge that leads to self-realization.

ShrotaSutra : The subject of this Yoga.

Grihasutra : The subject of it is domestic life.

Dharmasutras : It includes subjects of Dharmasutra and Grihasutra.

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Pietra dura : Inland decoration with precious stones in floral design.

Mride Murti : Statue made of clay.

Akshyana : Narrating stories through singing.

Exercise

Choose the correct option

1. Where has the bronze statue of a doneer have been found?

(i) Daimabad (ii) Mohenjodaro

(iii)Kalibanga (iv) Punjab

2. When did the first urbanization take place?

(i) New stone age (ii) Indus Civilization

(iii) Mauryan period (iv) Gupta period

3. Who talked about the scientific basis of teaching?

(i) Vatsayan (ii) Asoka

(iii) Samudra Gupta (iv) Kumar Gupta

4. Which dynasty started coins with the Veena emblem?

(i) Maurya dynasty (ii) Gupta dynasty

(iii) Vardhan dynasty (iv) Rajput dynasty

5. Who was the originator of the Quwali?

(i) Akbar (ii) Shahjahan

(iii) Tansen (iv) Amir Khusro

Match the following :

A. B.

1. Scholar Udaidev (a) Temple of Khajuraho

2. Chandell rulers (b) Mt. Abu

3. Dilwara Temple (c) Mohan Jadaro and Haddappa

4. Indus Valley (d) Jainendra Vyakaran

5. Mahendra Verman-I (e) Gupta period

6. Udaigiri Caves (f) Matvilas Prahsan

Very short answer type questions

1. How many alphabets are there in the longest inscription of the Indus civilization?

2. To which literature are Deepavansa, Mahavansa and Divyadan related?

3. To which religion are the literacy creations Kalpasutra and Parishishta Pawan related?

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4. Which Bhakti worship was followed by Tulsidas, Surdas, Meerabai, Raskhan?

5. In which period were the Ellora temples constructed?

6. Who built the Taj Mahal?

7. Who was Tansen?

Short answer type questions

1. Write the features of the Gupta period paintings.

2. Write the characteristics of architecture during the Indus civilization.

3. Write a note on the Asoka npillars.

4. Mention the features of the temples of the Gupta period.

5. Write the differences between the Nagara and the Dravidian styles.

6. Write the differences between the Mathura and the Gandhara art.

7. State the features of medieval period paintings.

Long answer type questions

1. Which are the main cultural trends of India? Write a comparative description of anyone with reference to ancient and medieval period. Describe.

2. How did literature grow from the ancient to the medieval period?

3. Write the features of painting from the ancient to the medieval period.

4. Describe the Mughal period architecture.

5. How did sculpture develop in the medieval period? Describe.

6. Give an analytical description of the growth of music and dance during the medievalperiod.

7. How did the fine arts develop from the ancient to the medieval period?

Project work

● Collect the pictures of Nagar style and Dravid style temples and write the differences.

● Collect the pictures of Buddhist statues under Gandhara and Mathura Art and write thedifferences.

● The Teacher can divide the class into groups and divide the work among them forcollection of information on literature, painting, architecture, sculpture, dance, musicand other performing arts from the ancient to the Mughal period. Arrange thisinformation in a chronological order and prepare a scrap book on any one which candepict any one cultural trend in a sequential manner.

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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Democracy

We Will Study12.1 Concept of Democracy,

meaning and definition12.2 Fundamental Principles of

Democracy12.3 Types of Democracy12.4 Features of Democracy12.5 Merits and Demerits of

Democracy12.6 Importance of Democracy12.7 Democracy in India

12.1 Concept of Democracy: Meaningand Definition

There have been various administrativesystems in the political development of thehuman race of which Democracy is consideredto be the most important system. The mainconcept of it is that the entire power of thestate vests in the people and not in anyindividual, group or a dynasty. Thereforeparticipation of the people is the basicfoundation of Democracy. All must participatein the taking of such decisions or work whichaffects everyone.

In the initial period of Democracy when the population and geographical boundariesof the state were small, the entire population was a part in decision making inadministration. Therefore it was practiced in states with limited boundaries and populations.The beginning of direct Democracy is believed to have started from the city states ofGreece. Since the geographical boundaries and population of the states in the presenttimes has increased considerably, direct Democracy is no more possible. Thereforepeople indirectly participate, through the representatives elected by them, to exercisepower in administration. Therefore in the present times Democracy is practised in anindirect form. It is an administered Democracy through the representatives of the people.

By 'Democracy' is meant a system of governance where public welfare is of utmostimportance. Democracy is not confined to a system of governance. It's a form of stateand a society. Therefore it is a mixture of state, society and governance. Domocracygives the power to rule the people, to control and to dismiss the government. As a formof a society Democracy is a social system where the thought and behaviour of equalityis strong. There must be equal importance to dignity of individuals and all must have equalopportunities of growth. It's a total way of life. It's a system of values where theindividual's welfare is the end and the development of personality its goal. It is based onthe pre-conceived notion of freedom, compatibility and mutual cooperation.

The word democracy has been derived from two Greek words 'Demos' and 'cratia'which respectively mean 'people' and 'power'. It means a type of governing system where

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the power to govern rests with the people and administration is either done directly bythe people or through their representatives. It is also referred to as 'Loktantra' or'Jantantra'.

● Aristotle has called Democracy as the 'Rule of Many'.● Abraham Lincoln has called Democracy as a ‘rule of the people, by the

people and for the people.’● According to Dicey ‘Democracy is a form of government where the ruling

community is a comparatively bigger part of the entire nation.’The import is that the Democratic system is related to a welfare state. It lays

emphasis on the freedom and importance of individuals and the fact that sovereignty lieswith the people.

12.2 Fundamental Principles of Democracy

The principles of Democracy are as follows -

The classical principle of Democracy - According to this principle the basis ofgovernance is the consent of the people, but if the government does not come up to theexpectations of the people, then the people can remove the government through nextelection. The welfare of the people is the aim of the government. This is also known asthe liberal principle of Democracy, because it lays emphasis on the freedom of thepeople and supremacy of the society.

The elitist principle of democracy - This principle has been propounded since thebeginning of the 20th Century. It lays emphasis on the basic natural inequalities amongmen and believes that in all political systems there are two classes - the ruling and theruled. Though the ruling class is in a minority, as a center of power it is still an elite class.The power of governing is in the hands of this elite class. Generally people think that theyare participating in the political process but actually their influence is confined toelections. The basis of the elite is selection on the basis of superiority. Their superioritycan be on any basis - nature, thought, economic status, social and educational background,which makes them different from the common people. The Elite also consider themselvesdifferent and superior but they act and react with the common people. In this wayintegration of peoples' sovereignty is attained. The Elite have an influential role indeciding the policy or in the money and wealth of the society but in a democracyeveryone has an equal opportunity to enter this elite class. On the other hand a regulatedand an open election process acts as a hindrance for the elite to work for the welfare ofthe people.

Pluralist Principle - This principle believes that in a democracy a person has thefreedom to organize himself into various groups for the fulfillment of various interests.These groups are autonomous in their region and pressurise the Government for fulfillmentof their interests. In this way all groups share power to the extent of fulfillment of their

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interests. This principle also believes that actually power is divided among these groupstherefore its basic concept is decentralization of power. According to this, the state alonedoes not have the right to supreme power. In a democracy all groups of the society havea share in political power and power to govern.

Marxist Principle - In the later 19th century a new principle of democracy basedon the ideology of the modern propounders of communism, Karl Marx and Lenin cameup. According to this, in classical democracy or a liberal democratic system realdemocracy is not possible because in this governance is controlled by a small resourcefulclass whereas actually democracy is based on the welfare of all and equality among all.According to this principle for the establishment of true democracy a classless andstateless society should be established first. The Resourceful class is empowered withpolitical power therefore the state itself becomes a group of exploiters. The Marxistprinciple believes that political power must be vested in the entire society but for this itis important that the economic power should be in the hands of the entire society. In sucha condition alone will the administration be regulated for all and in the interests of all.This principle of democracy lays more emphasis on economic equality rather than onpolitical and civil equality. It recognizes that if a person has no food, clothing or shelterthen the right to vote or to get elected is meaningless for him. For the establishment ofa real democracy Marxism gives the following suggestions.

1. Social ownership of means of production and distribution.

2. Equal distribution of wealth and fulfillment of everyone's fundamentalneeds.

3. For the representation of people with similar economic interests thecomplete power to administer must be in the hands of one party. Marxismbelieves such a democracy to be the actual and best Democracy.

After the first World War till 1990 this was practised in the Soviet Union. ATPresent China is a republic partially based on this principle.

12.3 Type of Democracy

Generally Democracy is of two types, Direct democracy and indirect orrepresentative democracy.

Direct Democracy - When the people residing in a state themselves directlydiscuss public issues on the basis of which policies are decided and laws are made, thensuch a governance is called direct democracy.

Direct democracy is possible only in states with less population and those whichare small in size. In the present times when in big states the number of citizens is incrores, direct democracy is not possible. Direct democracy today is prevalent in somecantons of Switzerland and under the Panchayati Raj system in the Gram Sabhas in India.

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I n d i r e c tDemocracy -When the peopleparticipate in themaking of lawsand controllingthe working of theadministra-tionthrough theelected represe-ntatives it iscalled Indirect Democracy. In the present times indirect democracy is practised. In thisthe people choose their representatives for a definite period who form the legislature andmake laws. In this system the wishes of the people are expressed through the electedrepresentatives.

12.4 Features of Democracy

The aim of every individual is self growth. For this every individual needs someopportunities. Democracy is the onlyadministrative system in which all get equalopportunities without any discrimination fortheir alround development. The Democraticsystem is based on the dignity and equality ofcitizens, freedom, brotherhood and justice. Thefundamental features of democracy are asfollows -

1. Accountable Ruling System -In a democracy people rule directly or throughtheir elected representatives. In this, the people have continuous influence over the rulingclass. The people can make the Government work in an accountable manner by askingquestions and criticising it. Here the power to govern is basically with the people whichis handed over to the representatives for a fixed term. Therefore the accountability of thegovernment is essential for the people, otherwise they have the right to hand over thepower to any alternative political party in the next elections.

Rule based on Equality - Democracy is based on the principle of equality. In thisform of government all citizens without any discrimination have equal civil and politicalrights. Elections within a fixed time period are essential for democracy. All adult citizenshave an equal right to vote and contest elections as candidates in these elections. Thepresent democracies emphasise social and economic equality as well. No discrimination

Types of Democracy Democracy (Rule of the People)

Direct Democracy Direct participation

of the people in Governance

Indirect DemocRepresentative Dem

(Participation in Government by the

through elected repres

Features of Democracy● Accountable ruling system.● Rule based on equality● Strengthening system of freedom● Rule of Law● Free and fair elections● Existence of written constitution● Independent and Impartial Judiciary.

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on the basis of religion, race, caste, gender, social status and availability of minimumeconomic needs is considered to be the aim of democracy. The basic traits of democracyare equal social and economic opportunities and equal importance to an individual'spersonality. Therefore one person one vote is the axis of democracy.

Strengthening the system of freedom - In a democracy various types of freedomare given to the citizens for their alround development. Besides political freedom, rightsto various types of religious and cultural freedoms are also given to the citizen. In ademocracy citizens have the right to vote, get elected, hold public offices, give speeches,freedom to express themselves, form associations, organize meetings, address people orpractise any profession or trade. If the citizens do not agree with the policies of theGovernment then they have a right to protest. Freedom is the soul of democracy, withoutfreedom democracy is not possible.

Rule of Law - In this system the Government formed on the wishes of the people,works according to law therefore it is also called as Rule of Law. By rule of law is meantthat everyone is equal before law. Similar punishment is given for similar crimes,whatever be the status and position of the individual. Its not the rule of any individual orgroup.

Therefore it is important to have a constitution where the fundamental laws arementioned. Ensuring the rights of the citizens and ensuring that they are abiding by thelaws is the responsibility of an independent judiciary. The Judiciary can give verdictagainst the Government also if it works against the Constitution. In a democratic countrythe fundamental laws are stated in the constitution. The Government makes laws accordingto the conditions and requirements. These laws are above all.

Independent and Impartial Elections - Conducting elections only is not enoughin a democracy but elections must be conducted in an independent and impartial mannerso that the possibility of winning or losing an election for the people in power is notthere. There should be no pressure on the voters during elections and the electionprocess should also be impartial. The will of the people is supreme in a democracy. Inthis form of Government elections are held from time to time. For forming theGovernment various political parties and independent candidates also have the freedomto participate in these elections. Most of democratic countries along with India have asystem of open election. The practical aspect of democracy is based on the fearlessvoting by voters for the candidate of his/her choice.

Existence of a Written Constitution - Definite fundamental principles andprocedures of administrative organization is the most important feature of Democracy sothat any ruling party on the basis of its majority may not define or change it accordingto its whims and fancies. The constitution of organs of government, procedures etc. mustbe clearly defined in the Constitution. Therefore a written constitution is considered tobe very important. Democracy is based on equality and freedom of the citizens.

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Therefore it is necessary to define them in the fundamental laws of the constitution.Independent and Impartial Judiciary - An independent and impartial judiciary is

of paramount importance for putting into practice the provisions of the constitution. Thejudiciary has been made supreme to make the government work in accordance with theconstitution, secure the rights of the citizens and punish those who violate the constitution.Therefore in order to make democracy practical an independent and impartial judiciaryis very important.

12.5 Merits and Demerits of Democracy

The merits of Democracy are as follows -

Based on the highest values of humanity -Democracy is based on high values like equality,justice and brotherhood and everyone is treated withequality respecting every individuals dignity. Itdevelops virtues like self respect and self-reliance inthe citizens as it is based on sovereignty andpartnership of the citizens.

Public Welfare - In a democracy therepresentatives of the people who are elected by thepeople for a definite period govern. They are always afraid that if they do not work inaccordance with the wishes, feelings and needs of the people then they will be defeatedin the next elections. Therefore the government is responsible to the people in ademocracy and is always vigilant about their interests. Therefore public welfare is alwayskept in mind in a democracy.

Political Education - Democracy is the best means of political education. Peopletake interest in the political field naturally, due to the right to vote and freedom to holda political position. Freedom of expression and the use of means of communication,promote the tendency to exchange ideas among citizens. All political parties keepcampaigning continuously which gives political education to the masses. Therefore in ademocracy citizens receive administrative, political and social education.

Growth of the Feeling of Patriotism - A Democracy is the rule of the peoplefor attaining public welfare for the people. People feel associated with the Governmentand state since they are politically conscious. This association promotes the feelings oflove and commitment for the nation. This leads to the cultivation of nationalism. Citizensfeel that the Government is formed by them and they alone have all rights and powers.After the 1789 Revolution the French loved their nation because after the Revolutionthey got freedom and equal participation in the governance of France.

Minimum possibility of violent revolution - Democracy is a philosophy of

Merits of Democracy● Based on higher values of

humanity● Public welfare● Political education● Growth of patriotism● Minimum possibility of

violent revolution.

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peace and tolerance. It is based on understanding and consensus. The opposition also hasa right to put forth its views. Therefore the opposition also criticises and condemns theGovernment. If the majority of the people are dissatisfied with the ruling class they caneasily remove them through constitutional methods. Therefore there is least possibilityof a violent revolution in a democracy.

Democracy is the best system based on the rule of the people on theoreticalgrounds, but there are practical difficulties in putting this system into practice.

These are some demerits of the system. The main demerits of the system are asfollows -

Emphasis on quantity rather than on quality - In a democracy more importanceis given to quantity than quality. Only thevotes are counted in this system. The vote ofevery voter has equal value irrespective of thefact whether he is capable or incapable,educated or illiterate. The basis of democracyis the concept that everyone is equal whereasthe potential of all in the society is not equal.Every voter has right to one vote in ademocracy meaning that it considers everyoneequal. Therefore the views/opinion of more capable people are not correctly evaluated.

Rule of the Incapable - Governance is an art. For this special knowledge andqualifications are required. The aim of welfare of the entire society cannot be realizedif the ruler does not have the knowledge of this art. Only a few people have the art,capability and the potential to govern. But in a democracy there is a rule of the majorityand a capable person is also equated with an incapable one. In developing countries thesituation is even more pitiable. Therefore critics also call democracy as a rule of theincapable.

Waste of Public time and money - Only after a long and complex procedure is thelegislature formed. Sometimes it takes years to make important laws. Lot of money isspent on the election process. A lot of money is also spent on the members of parliament,members of legislative assembly, ministers and officers attached to the legislature.Therefore there is a waste of both time and money in a democracy.

Domination of the Wealthy - To say that everyone participates in the politicalprocess in a democracy is only theoretical. Practically elections have become soexpensive that common people cannot even think of participating in the election for anyposition. To contest elections based on money has become a common feature of theDemocratic system. Candidates contesting elections spend a lot of money in campaigning.

Demerits of Democracy● Emphasis on quality rather than on

quantity.● Rule of the Incapable● Waste of public time and money.● Dominance of the rich.● Weak during wars and emergencies.

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This has led to the transformation of Democracy from 'Rule of the people' to the 'Ruleof the Rich.'

Partisanships - For the regulation of the present democracy political parties arebecoming essential. Ideally political parties are formed on the basis of ideologies but inpractice their main aim is to acquire power. Political parties level baseless chargesagainst each other to influence people and win popularity Opposition for the sake ofopposing and not for principles or values becomes the aim of the political parties.Political parties become a battle ground for those who influence the feelings of thepeople through negative campaigning and find ways and means to fulfill their selfishmotives and establish their supremacy. Their immoral behavior during elections embittersthe entire environment. Partisan interests become more important than public welfare andthey also use political power to fulfill their selfish interests.

Weak during wars and emergencies - There is a need to take quick decisionsduring a war or an emergency, but a democracy proves to be ineffective during suchtimes. Due to the distribution of power in a democracy it takes a lot of time to takedecisions and enforce them.

12.6 Importance of Democracy

Democracy is not only a special type of rule but it has a special perspective towardslife. Democracy is a system of governance based on freedom, equality, participation andbrotherhood. It can also be called a social system. Under this the entire life of man isbased on the democratic belief that every individual has equal importance in the society.If the importance of a person is only in the political field then democracy will remainincomplete. For realization of true democracy it is important that individuals get equalopportunities of growth in the political, social and economic sphere of life.

In the political sphere of man's life, democracy means a political system in whichthe power to take decisions does not vest in an individual but in the hands of the electedrepresentatives of the people. Therefore the rule is based on the feelings of the people.

In the social sphere of man's life democracy implies a society where there is nodiscrimination on the grounds of caste, religion, colour, gender, race, creed or wealth.Everyone must have equal right's and opportunities to grow equally without anydiscrimination and society must have the underlying feeling of brotherhood and mutualcooperation.

In the economic sphere of man's life by democracy is meant a system, where everymember of the society gets the freedom and the right to choose his means of livelihoodor any profession. An effort to establish such a system is made where there is noexploitation of one by the other. An effort is made to provide basic facilities so that he mayfulfill his minimum economic need and live a dignified life. The Government is expected

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to provide the facilities of food, clothing, shelter, health, education, employment etc.

The Democratic system believes in an organized and regular change of the rulers.Democracy also believes that whatever changes have to be done in the political, socialand economic spheres can be done in a peaceful manner. This is the only administrativesystem which ensures the participation of the people in the political process. Thereforeit is valued more than any other system of governance.

Need and importance of a constitution for a DemocracyIn the present democratic system the government is formed by the elected

representatives of the people. The fundamental belief of democracy is that the power ofgoverning must be in the interests of the governed for protecting the rights of the people.In a democracy the common people easily get to know the procedure of formation of theGovernment and rights and duties of the citizens. There should also be a provision toensure that the constitution may not be easily changed. In this manner it is important tohave a written constitution for safeguarding democracy. Democracy is therefore calledthe Rule of Law. Here the Law is above an individual or a group of individuals, which isensured through a written constitution. Therefore a constitution is very important for aDemocracy. For strengthening democracies, democratic traditions are also importantwhich give flexibility to a written constitution.

12.7 Democracy in IndiaForm of Democracy in Ancient India - Democracy and ideas of democratic

institutions are not new for India. It is believed that from around 3000 BC to 1000 BCduring the Vedic period the tradition of representative consultation was prevalent amongIndians. During the later Vedic period the Republican form of Government and local selfgoverning institutions were prevalent. In the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda a reference ofSabha and Samiti is found. After the war of Mahabharat big empires started disappearingand many republician states rose. During the Mahajanpad period there was a birth ofsixteen Mahajanpads which included Kashi, Kaushal, Magadh, Matsya etc. Some of theMahajanpads were monarchical and others republic. Mahavir and Gautam Buddha bothcame from Republics. Many rules of Buddhist monasteries resembled the rules of themodern parliamentary system. For example - Seating arrangement, various types ofproposals, calling attention quorum, counting of votes, motion, thoughts related to justiceetc. In the Vajji union everyone assembled for a meeting. It was a form of directdemocracy. The Union of Vajji was formed by the association of six republics. There wasan elaborate system of self government in villages and cities during the Mauryan periodin India. Indian society was predominantly agrarian where the fundamental unit was selfgoverning and independent villages. The political structure was based on these villagecommunities. The village was administered by an elected Panchayat. The center of thevillage was a Panchayat Ghar where young and old assembled. All the members of the

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village elected the Panchayat every year. These elected Panchayats had all rights in thematters of the village and the right to administer justice. Panchayats distributed the landand collected taxes for the Government from the entire village. Some committees wereformed from the elected members of the Panchayats. Each committee was formed forone year; if any member misbehaved he could be immediately removed. If a member wasunable to give a proper account of the public exchequer he was declared incapable. At thecentral level the king ruled. The king did not have autocratic rights based on Divine rightslike kings in Europe. If the king misbehaved the subjects had the right to remove the king.There was a state council to give advice to the king. The king worked in accordance withthe wishes of the people and the advisors of the king (ministers / officers) respected thePanchas at the local levels. Therefore in ancient India the meaning of 'Rule of King' wasserving the subjects.

Democratic Institutions during the British Rule - British rule tried to givelimited powers to the Indians. For this the various Acts passed by the British parliamentand the laws made by British rule in India can be termed as a partial forerunner of IndianDemocracy. The ancient heritage of Indian society and culture has democratic valuesfrom the beginning therefore the legal systems of the British rule period were easilyaccepted by the Indians. Though they only had a formal form of democracy they can stillbe called as the initial form of a democracy. In 1858, 1861 and 1892 the above systemswere limited to local administration only. The Acts of 1909, 1919 and 1935 made amajor contribution in the growth of the Parliamentary system in India.

Present Indian DemocracyIn the present times India is the world's largest democratic country. After independence,

the Indian Constitution came into force on 26th Jan. 1950. India became a sovereigndemocratic republic after the enforcement of the constitution. Citizens were given universaladult suffrage in accordance with the fundamental principles of democracy by theconstitution. All adult Indian citizens were given the right to vote without any discrimination,by which the people could elect the representatives of their choice and form a popularGovernment.

Indian citizens have shown an active participation and maturity in all the parliamentaryand legislative elections. Barring the exception of emergency (1975-1977) holding of timelyand impartial elections is an indicator of perpetual democracy in India. Besides the electionsfor village panchayats and city municipalities and municipal corporation are also examples ofthe Indian democracy being broad based.

There are some challenges to Indian democracy. Indian democracy is getting affected byilliteracy, casteism, linguism, regionalism, separatism, communalism, political violence,social and economic inequalities, dominance of money and muscle power, corruption andpolitics of vote banks.

Indian democracy can be freed from these demerits by removing social-economicinequalities, expansion of education and establishing moral values. The commitment of

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Indian people towards democracy is clear from the various timebound peaceful electionsand through change in power from time to time through constitutional methods. Thereforewe can hope for perpetuation and success of democracy in India

TermsSovereignty : The supreme power of the state.

State : A group formed by a defined geographical area, population,government and sovereignty is called a state.

Canton : Switzerland's political or administrative province / unit

Communism : It is an ideology whose main aim is to establish economicequality so that the minimum needs of each individual aremet.

Elite : A group of such people who have made a special place in thesociety. This word is also used for leaderships of variousregions like a political elite.

Republic : The head of the state will be elected by the people and notfrom any dynasty or royal dynasty.

Forerunner : Beginning background / Preceding.

End : Aims, for example the aim of the state is to establish awelfare state.

Exercise

Choose the correct alternative -

1. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a Democracy?

(i) Government of elected representatives.

(ii) Respect of Rights.

(iii) Centralization of power in the hands of one person.

(iv) Free and impartial elections.

2. Which is the Democratic concept?(i) Freedom (ii) Exploitation(iii) Inequality (iv) Individualism

3. Which one of the following is not a demerit of democracy?(i) Waste of public time and money(ii) Dominance of the wealthy

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(iii) Partisanships(iv) Public welfare

4. Democracy is a rule of the people, by the people for the people -(i) Machiavelli (ii) Lincoln(iii) Rousseau (iv) Hautes

Fill in the blanks :

1. Aristotle has called Democracy as the ............................ .

2. The propounders of communism was ....................... and ...................... .

3. A ................... constitution is essential for a successful Democracy.

4. There is a wastage of .................. and ..................... in Democracy.

Very short type answer -

1. What has been mentioned with reference to democracy in the later Vedic Period?

2. What was the basic unit of administration in ancient India?

3. What right does the Marxist principle of democracy lay emphasis on?

Short answer type questions -

1. Write any two definitions explaining the meaning of democracy.

2. State the importance of Democracy.

3. What do you understand by indirect or representative Democracy?

Long answer type questions

1. What do you understand by democracy? Write down its chief characteristics.

2. Describe the merits and demerits of democracy.

3. Describe the fundamental principles of democracy.

4. Describe the form and importance of democracy in India.

5. What is the concept of Democracy? Describe the present form of Indiandemocracy.

Project Work

● Collect information of the student council elections in your school. Writethe process or procedure adopted in the elections of class representatives orstudent council. Make a beautiful chart of all representatives and officebearers.

● Collect information of the elections of your village Panchayat. Make achart of winning and defeated candidates. Write the role of people of thevillage in the election process of the Panchayat.

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�We Will Study

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Elections

13.1 Meaning and need ofelection

13.2 Conditions of receivingfranchise

13.3 Political party systemcharacteristics, functionand types

13.4 Political parties of India-importance, role ofopposition

13.5 The Indian Election pro-cedure

13.6 Election Commission andits functions

13.1 Meaning and need of Election

We have adopted the parliamentary type ofgovernment in our country. In this type ofgovernment the elected representatives form thegovernment. The people participate in thegovernment through election. Election is a processin which citizens of a country elect theirrepresentatives. The representatives are electedfor a fixed period. The people of our countryexercise their political power by participating inelections. India is a large and multilingual country.In our country every citizen has an equal right toparticipate in the election of a representative(without any discrimination). This system offranchise is called universal adult franchise. Allthose citizens who have attained the age of 18

years and whose names are included in the voter's list, have the right of voting.

India has adopted secret suffrage system. In India the Election Commission hasbeen constituted for holding free and impartial elections.

Election is a process through which people of democratic countrieselect their representatives for a fixed period of time.

13.2 Franchise

The preamble of the Indian Constitution declares that sovereignty rests in the handsof the people. People exercise their supreme power through their elected representatives.The Public is the source of the entire power of government. Citizens have the right toelect their representatives. The management of the government is done through theelected representatives. The right to elect representatives is called suffrage. This is animportant political right. The modern age is an age of Democracy. The public of thosecountries which do not have democracy also want to adopt it. In our country every adultcitizen has been granted the right to vote. This system of suffrage is called UniversalAdult Franchise.

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Universal Adult Franchise

The granting of the right to vote to an adult male and female of the countrywithout any discrimination is called Universal Adult Franchise. In this systemafter attaining a specified age, all citizens are granted the right to Vote.

In our country all males and females who have attained the age of 18 years have theright to vote. But this has to be kept in mind, that suffrage is not only a right but alsoa duty. Insane or mad persons, declared insolvent by the court or persons who are notcitizens of India do not have the right to vote.

At the time of framing of our constitution, the citizens of some countries of theworld had limited franchises. But the creators of our constitution decided to grantfranchise to all the citizens without any discrimination. On 17th November 1949 thesewords were said in the Constituent Assembly :

“Without Universal Adult Franchise, democracy is meaningless.”

Franchise is a unique provision of our constitution. It has so many advantages. Thefollowing are its characteristics.

1. Equal importance of vote of every citizen.

2. It is in conformity with the principle of equality.

3. All citizens participate in administration.

4. Change of government is possible peacefully.

5. Political education to people.

6. It instills self respect among citizens.

It is a serious question for all democratic systems that what should be the basis offranchise? Whether this right should be given to allcitizens of the state or only to some selectedcitizens. In this reference the following are theprinciples of franchise-

1. Principle of Tribal Franchise -According to this franchise to each individual ofthe state should be granted, because it is not aspecific right or facility but it is a natural and activepart which influences the life of every citizen. Thisopinion was prevalent, within the old meetings ofancient Greece, Rome and other states wherefranchise was done by raising hands. Probably thecompulsion of citizenship in the modern age is its

Principles of franchise1. Principle of Tribal Franchise2. Principle of knight.3. Principle of nature.4. Principle of Law.5. Principle of Moral6. Principle of universal Adult

Franchise.7. Principle of pluralistic

franchise.8. Principle of weighted

franchise.

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prototype.

2. Principle of Feudal Franchise- According to this principle only thosepeople who possess property can exercise the right of suffrage. This opinion wasespecially prevalent in the medieval times when the right of franchise was a symbol ofhonour. In the modern age, the necessity of having property for the right of suffrage isbased on this principle in many countries.

3. Principle of nature - According to this principle the government is a manmade machinery. It is based on the consent of the people. Therefore, the right to choosethe ruler is a natural right of the people. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuriesthis principle was very popular.

4. Principle of Law - According to this principle franchise is not a naturalright of the people but this is a political right. It is only the government which decidesto whom the franchise should he granted. Every government decides it according to itsconditions and social position.

5. Principle of morals - According to this principle for the development ofpersonality, man should have the right to decide through franchise who will govern him.It gives birth to political sensitivity and makes him aware of the policies and programmesof government.

6. Principle of Universal Adult franchise - This is the most prevalentprinciple among the democratic states. According to this every adult citizen of the statecan exercise the right to vote without any discrimination. The demand for Universalfranchise and sovereignty of the people was raised during 17th and 18th centuries. Theright of adulthood was included in it .The age of adulthood is eighteen years in America,Britain, Russia and India. In Australia the government can declare it compulsory forcitizens to exercise the right to vote and can punish a person who does not exercise hisright to vote without some genuine reason.

In most countries, this system of adult franchise is exercised. Therefore it isnecessary to know its merits and demerits.

Merits

● As democracy means participation of people in administration thereforeuniversality of franchise is desirable. Participation in administration ofpeople is the life line of democracy.

● A representative who is related to all should be elected by all.

● Franchise is the origin of democracy because it is in conformity with theprinciple of equality.

● Unless franchise is universal there is no hope of a government which aimsat public interest.

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Demerits

● In the opinion of thinkers like Maikale and Hensigen, the uneducated andignorant people also get the opportunity of franchise.

● It is also said that franchise should not be granted to a majority of peopleas it increases political unstability.

7. Principle of Pluralistic Franchise - The principle of "One man onevote" is accepted everywhere in the modern democratic system, but the system ofpluralistic franchise has also been prevalent in several states for the last few years.According to the basic concept of this principle of suffrage the number of votes ofpersons should be made less or more on some basis.

8. Principle of weighed franchise - According to this principle votes arenot counted but weightage is given to them. Here weight means importance that is inelecting the government the weight of the vote of a person who is adorned with anyspecialty such as education, wealth or property will be more than that of an ordinaryperson.

13.3 Political party system

Different political parties are essential for the parliamentary type of democracypolitical parties are organsied groups of citizens having similar ideology. They arecommitted to their policies and programmes. They work in a form of power and they arealways attempting to gain power and continue it. There are some general characteristicsof political parties.

Functions of political parties.

Political parties have many importantfunctions in democracy. The main functionsare as follows-

1. They work as a bridge between thegovernment and the public.

2. They form public opinion aboutvarious issues of national interest.

3. They select candidates for elections.

4. They make efforts to control thearbitrariness of the ruling party.

5. The main function of political partiesis to get victory in elections and toform the government.

Characteristic of political parties● To maintain a clear identity● To opine clearly regarding policy

matters● To obtain public opinion in support of

its policy continously● Registraion in election commission● Be United by one regulation.● They have in Main aim to win election

for obtaining power● To create public opinion against anti-

public policies by keeping an eye onthe ruling party

● Have a Party symbol for identity

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6. They help in preparing voters lists.

7. They impart political education to people.

8. They do social and economic work also.

Type of party systems

On the basis of the number of political parties the party system is divided into threecategories-

a. Single party system- In a country where there is only one political party, itis called a single party system. In the countries having single party system asingle party is recongnised and the existence and idiologies of other partiesare restricted.

b. Bi-party system- In a country if only two main parties exist and the rulingpower shifts between these two parties only, then this system is called Bi-party system. For example in America the main two parties are the democraticand republican parties, and in Britain Labour and Conservative Parties. Thusthe bi-party system is prevalent in the United States of America and Britain.

c. Multiparty system - When in a country several political parties exist then itis called a multi party system. We have multi party system in our country. Inthe elections many small and insignificant parties take part, but they are notnecessary.

When there is no majority of any single party then a coalition government isformed. Two or more parties are united in a coalition government.

The main demerit of the multiparty system ischanging of party by politicians. During electionsseveral types of problems arise. In this system itbecomes very difficult to differentiate between thepolicies of different political parties. The number ofindividual parties increases in the multiple party system.

Due to political ambitions, the formation of newparties begins and existing political parties break up.

13.4 Political parties in India, Importanceand role of opposition.

In India some major political parties came into existence before independence.After independence the Election Commission was formed. In India political parties areregistered and recognised by it.

Political parties in India are of three types-

Coalition GovernmentWhen a single party does not

get a majority and few partiestogether form a government,

that government is called

association government. Thisis also called as collation

government.

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1. National Political PartyAt the time of the parliamentary election in the year 2004, 6 political parties were

recognised as national political parties. These are- 1. The Indian National Congress, 2.The Bhartiya Janta Party, 3. The Bahujan Samaj Party, 4. The Communist Party of India(Marxist), 5. The Communist Party of India, 6. The Nationalist Congress Party

The party symbols of national parties are uniform in the whole country. Althougha party is a national party, it does not mean that it will have equal popularity in everystate. The influence of national parties varies from state to state. To be recognised as anational political party, any one of the following conditions should be fulfilled.

Any political party which obtains at least 6% vote in the election of parliament orState Legislative Assembly or if any political party obtains at least 2 percent of totalseats of the parliament and this position should be in minimum three states, this partywill be considered a national political party.

2. State Political PartiesAt the time of the parliamentary election in the year 2004, there were 36 regional

political parties in India. They are recognised for one or more than one state. Theirelection symbols are reserved in these states. For example- the Akali Dal in Punjab, theTelugu Desham in Andhra are regional parties. A party can be recognised as a state partyif it obtains 6% votes in the related state legislative election or parliamentary electionor it obtains three seats in Legislature. State parties are known as regional parties.

3. Registered Political PartiesMore that 750 parties are registered in the Election Commission. For example the

Gondwna Gantantra Party and the Bhartiya Janshakti Party are registered as politicalparties. During elections such registered parties do not get time slot on radio andtelevision. Their election symbols are not reserved in the entire state. Their influence isrestricted to a limited area. Some registered parties merge themselves with other partiesif required or form a separate party in case of difference of opinion. Such parties aregenerally the result of the desire and influence of the president of the party.

Importance of Party SystemThe party system makes democratic rule possible. In the modern age the work of

government is done with the help of political parties. They help government make policies.With their help it also becomes easier to bring changes in the policies. Due to the partysystem, the government becomes welfare oriented and works in the interest of people. Theystop arbitrariness of the government. The desires and expectations of the public reach thegovernment through them. They impart political education to people. Everybody gets anopportunity to become a part of the government through these parties. Political partiesprotect the independence of citizens. They establish the unity of the nation.

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Importance of political parties

The importance of political parties in democracy can be explained in the followingway -

1. Formation and expression of public opinion is possible only throughpolitical parties. The political parties organise processions and conferencesfor the formation of public opinion.

2. At present adult franchise is adopted by most of the countries of the world.Parties nominate their candidates from their parties and campaign for them.

3. Today in the huge democratic ruling system, opposition parties are essential.Parties in minority or opposition parties have equal importance in democracylike parties with majority.

Role of Opposition

After the general elections, among all the political parties, the party with themajority or coalition of parties form the government or becomes the ruling party and theparties which do not get majority are called parties of the opposition. The party whichhas gained a majority forms the government. The opposition parties keep a check on thegovernment. In a parliamentary democracy the public do not keep the work of governmentunder direct control. This is done by the opposition party . In our parliamentary baseddemocratic country the ruling party and the opposition are bound to work for the publicwelfare with alertness due to the active role of the opposition parties in the parliamentand legislatures.

The opposition parties in parliament and legislative assemblies also suggest newpolicies and functions.

The government performs its responsibilities with more alertness due to thepresence of deliberation and discussion. The opposition cooperates to remove thedefects of law. During the sessions of legislature and parliament the role of theopposition becomes more important. The opposition pressurises the government byasking questions in the house, calls attention to notices or adjournment motions. Thusthe opposition establishes its efficacy before the public and it places the mistakes andweaknesses of government before them. It compels the government to rectify itsmistakes by criticising the policies and action of the government. The government getsinfluenced by the propoganda and tactics of the opposition.

13.5 The Indian Election Procedure

Elections are an important task. They are done through a specific procedure. Youare the future citizens of India therefore it is necessary for you to know about it. Theelection procedure is the same whether it is the general election, mid-term election or

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bi-election. The whole procedure of election canbe complied in the following way -

1. Preparation of Electoral Rolls -This is the first and the most important stage ofthe elections. Before each and every election,electoral rolls are prepared by the District ElectionOfficer's as per the directions of the ElectionCommission. Any Indian citizen who has attained18 years of age can get his name included. Voter'sidentity cards are also prepared by the districtelection officer. In the absence of voter's identitycard the citizens have to bring other documents toshow their identity.

2. Notification of Election - Everyelection procedure begins with notification ofelection. Notification of general, mid-term or bi-election to parliament is issued by the President, notification to state legislativeassembly is issued by the Governor.

After the deliberation with the Election Commission the notification is publishedin the Government Gazette. After issuing the election notification the ElectionCommission announces the election programme. Along with this the moral code ofconduct is enforced for the political parties.

3. Nomination for Election - Different political parties decide the namesof their candidates for participation in the election. The candidates who want to fightelection file their nomination papers personally and deposit them in front of theelections officer. After the scrutiny of the nomination papers the list of nominees isannounced on a fixed date. Within a fixed period a candidate can withdraw his/her name.The final list of nominees is issued after the time for withdrawal of names is over.

4. Election Symbols - The election symbol of each recognised party isalready fixed. The election symbol of their party is allotted to the concerned candidates.At the time of elections, the election symbol of the candidate is printed on the ballotpapers or shown on the Electronic voting machine against his name. In India, a largenumber of voters are illiterate. Therefore the election symbols are helpful for theidentification of the candidate.

5. Election Campaign - The Election campaign is an important aspect of thevoting procedure. Each candidate presents his party's programme on the electionmanifesto regarding the work which will be done by his party in the coming five yearsbefore the people and tries to get the favour of the voters in different ways. The political

General ElectionElections which take place at

a fixed period of time are knownas General Elections.

Mid Term ElectionIf the Lok Sabha or State

Legislative assemblies aredissolved before their tenure then,the elections which take place areMid Term elections

Bi-ElectionIn any area, if any post is

vacant due to the resignation ordeath of any candidate then suchelections are called Bi-Elections.

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parties issue their election manifesto which consists of their programmes and policies.Public meetings and rallies are organised. News papers, posters, banners, pamphlets areused for canvassing. Now time is given to political parties on radio and television also.

Canvassing is stopped fortyeight hours before the pollingbegins.

6. Polling - Eachconstituency is divided intomany polling centers. Thepolling centers are fixed foreach voter, where he casts hisvote on the day of polling. Anidentity card bearing thephotograph of the voter is

issued to each voter for his identity. This is known as identity card of the voter. Thevoters who do not possess this identity card, can prove his/her identity through himration card, driving license or any document related to her/his identity.

At a polling booth a presiding officer and polling officers are appointed as per therequirement. On the day of polling, voters come and line up in a queue. Before castingof vote the voter's identity is verified then the voter who has come to cast his vote hasto put append his signature / thumb impression on the voters' list. If an electronic votingmachine is used then the voter puts his signature or thumb impression on the register.After the marking of indelible ink he can cast his vote. Voting can be done in two ways-(1) by Electronic Voting Machine (2) Ballot System.

To keep the vote confidential two or more polling booths are made at every pollingcenter, where the electronic voting machine or the ballot box is kept. In the electronicvoting machine, the vote is cast by pressing the button in front of the name of thecandidate and his corresponding election symbol.

In the ballot paper voting system, a ballot paper with the signature of the electionofficer is given to the voter. The voter goes to the polling room with that ballot paperand puts the seal on the symbol of the desired candidate. The ballot paper is folded andput in the ballot box. After the period of voting is over, the electronic voting machineis closed and sealed. After the ballot boxes are used, these are closed first, then throughthe special paper seal obtained along with the voting material, these boxes are sealed.

7. Counting - All ballot boxes and electronic voting machines are collectedon a fixed date. Counting takes place in front of district election officer. The candidatewho obtains maximum number of votes is declared elected. The elected candidate is therepresentative of his area. The district election offices gives a certificate to the electedcandidate after the results of the elections are declared.

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The aim of the Election Commission is to conduct impartial and independentelections. On the day of elections a public holiday is declared so that all citizens get anopportunity to cast their vote. On the day of the election all liquor shops of that area areclosed. Special security arrangements are made so that nobody scares or threatens thevoters.

Shortcomings of the Indian ElectoralSystem

The future of the democracy dependsupon the fairness of elections and independentvoting i.e. without any inducement and pressure.The Election Commission makes efforts foran unbiased and independent election. Eventhen there are some problems. The followingare the main defects of our electoral system-

1. Lack of completeparticipation in voting - The aim of universalAdult Franchise is to make every citizenparticipate in the government indirectly. We have seen that a large number of voters donot exercise their right to vote in the parliamentary and state legislative elections.Therefore the elected candidate getting the maximum votes does not represent the publicin the real sense. Therefore participation of all citizen in exercising their franchise isdesirable.

2. Use of money in elections - The increasing expenses in elections is a bigproblem. For every election a ceiling on election expenses is fixed but a lot of moneyis spent by the candidates. Therefore, sometimes due to lack of money honest and wisepersons are not able to contest the election. The use of money in elections is an immoralact on the part of a person, which is a very serious problem from the point of view ofthe reformation of the election system.

3. Influence of muscle power in elections - Sometimes the candidates tryto win the election by unfair means. For this they take help of criminals also. Often withthe use of muscle power, booth capturing is resorted to and voters are made to vote insome one's favour by threatening them or by voting illegally.

4. Misuse of Government Machinery - Before the time of electionscharming promises are made by the ruling party. During the elections, high officials aretransferred and government, money and vehicles and other means are misused. They alsotry to influence the election officers. All these affect the impartiality of the elections.

5. The number of independent candidates- Sometimes there are too manyindependent candidates in the election race. This creates problems for managing the elections.

Shortcomings of Elections system● Lack of complete participation● Use of black money in elections● Influence of muscle power in the

elections● Misuse of Government machinery● Teh great number of independent

Candidates● The attempt to influence the

sentiments of voters● Frauds

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6. Attempts to influence the sentiments of the voters - At the time ofelections some candidates try to influence the sentiments of the voters on the basis ofreligion, caste, region and language. Political parties select their candidates on the basisof caste. The biggest defect of the Indian election system is the attempt to influence theelection by provoking the sentiments of the public.

7. Impersonation (Fraud franchise) - Some times some persons vote inplace of other persons, include their names in more than one electoral rolls, cast voteswithout the inclusion of their names in the electoral roll etc. all are fraudulent franchise.This is also a big problem of our election system.

8. Other defects - The name of the citizen should compulsorily be includedin the electoral roll to allow him to vote for a candidate in an election. We often see thatseveral names of the voters are not included in the electoral roll while the names ofpersons who have left that constituency or have expired are not deleted from theelectoral rolls. The political parties do not make efforts to arouse awareness among thepeople. A large number of voters on one voting booth is also a problem. Some-times onecandidate contests from more than one constituency. If he wins in both the constituenciesthen the candidate resigns from one constituency. In that condition bi-elections takesplace. The government money as well as the money of the candidates is wasted.

In our country the Election Commission is continuously trying to make electionsfree and impartial. The Election Commission makes efforts to remove the defects of theelections. The identity card system of the voters is a valuable step taken by the ElectionCommission. Continuous efforts are being made to remove the defects of our electionsystem.

13.6 The Election Commission and its functions

The Election Commission is an independent institution constituted under theprovisions of the constitution. It conducts free and impartial elections in India. Electionsof the parliament, state legislature, office of the President and vice-president are allconducted under the supervision of the Election Commission. The office of the IndianElection Commission is at Delhi. In the Election Commission there are threecommissioners. One chief and two others. All the three have equal powers. In cases ofdifference of opinions, the decisions are taken by a majority. The President appoints theElections Commissioners.

The tenure of the Election Commissioner is 6 years or 65 years of age whicheveris earlier.

The procedure for the removal of the Election Commissioner is similar to thatprescribed for the removal of the Supreme Court judges. It means a resolution, which ispassed by a majority of the total members and two third majority of the present and

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voting members, is sent to the President from both houses of parliament separately. Thenonly can he/she be removed from the post.

Functions of the Election Commission

In our country the entire responsibility ofconducting elections lies with the ElectionCommission. The constitution is the source ofthe power and functions of the ElectionCommissioner. The following are the mainfunctions of the Election Commissioner -

1. Delimitation of theConstituencies - Before any election the areaof each constituency is demarcated. Earlier thedelimitation of constituencies was done by theElection Commissioner in the general elections.Now this is done by a Delimitation Commissioner.The Chief Election Commissioner is the presidentof this Commission.

2. Preparation of Electoral Rolls - This is the second important functionof the Election Commission. the Election Commission prepares a list of citizens whoare eligible to vote in accordance with the concerned polling booth before everyelection. This is called an Electoral roll. The names of the citizens who have attained theage of 18 years is included in the new list and some names of the persons are removedfrom the list who have either left the constituency or expired. The electoral roll is alsoknown as a voter list.

3. Allotment of Election Symbols - The election symbols of national andregional political parties are fixed and reserved by the Election Commission. Thedistribution of electoral symbols to the newly formed parties or the parties formed aftertheir division is done by the Election Commission. The election symbols are veryimportant signifiers for the political parties. During the elections the candidates ask forvotes on the basis of their party symbols.

4. Registration and Recognition of Political Parties - Registration ofpolitical parties and the need, to give them recognition as national or regional parties onthe basis of the votes obtained in the last elections of Parliament or LegislativeAssembly are the functions of the Commission. The Election Commission takes duecare for strict compliance of the election rules.

5. Holding Elections - The election programme is announced by the ElectionCommission. It makes arrangements and all efforts for holding free and impartial

Functions ofElection Commission

● Delimitation of theconstituencies

● Preparation of electoral Rolls● Allotment of election symbols● Registration and recognition of

political parties● Holding elections.● Giving their opinion for fixation

of dualities of members ofparliament and legislature

● Preparation and implementationof the moral code of conduct

● Miscellaneous functions

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elections. During elections it issues the code of conduct i.e. directions to be followedby the political parties and candidates. The commission has the right to supervise andcontrol the elections. The Election Commission makes efforts for free and impartialelections.

6. To give their opinion regarding disqualification of the members ofParliament and Legislative Assembly - To give their opinion regarding thedisqualification of the representatives is also the function of the Commission. ThePresident had sought advice of the Election Commission in the year 2006 regardingoffice of profit and on the basis of its advice the membership of some parliamentarianshad been terminated.

7. Miscellaneous work - The Election Commission is empowered to fix thelimit of expenses of the candidates. It also provides means for the improvement of theelection procedure and also for training of candidates.

Terms

Polling Area : Voters of a specific geographical area, who elect a representativefor that area.

Time Bound Elections Programme :Commencement of elections after a fix periodof time, like after every five years.

Code of conduct : The terms and condition of maintaining law and order andinstructions to be followed by the parties and candidates duringelections.

Election manifesto : A document, through which political parties describe theirpolicies and programmes. In this the party promises theformation of clean and capable government to the public.

Indelible Ink : Ink applied on the fingers of voters so that they are not able tocast votes again in the same election. This gets removed aftermany days.

ExerciseI. Choose the right option and write:1. Out of these, who can be granted adult franchise -

(i) Minor male and female (ii) Only male(iii) Adult Male and Female (iv) Only Female

2. Who does not have right to vote?(i) Insane or mentally handicapped (ii) Minor age group(iii) Declared bankrupt by court (iv) All the above

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3. In India, the election procedure is said to start after which of the following-(i) After filing of nomination paper by candidate(ii) After notification of election(iii) After beginning of campaigning(iv) With organising of public meetings.

II. Fill in the blanks :1. In our country all males and females who have attained the age of .............. years

have the right to vote.2. When few parties together form a government, that is called as ............ government.3. .................... commission has been formed for registration and recognition of

palitical parties.4. The granting of the right to vote to an adult male and female of the country without

any discrimination is called ............................ .Very short answer type questions1. What is meant by election? Write.2. What is franchise? Write.3. What are political parties? Write.4. Who appoints the Chief Election Commissioners?5. In India, where is the office of the Election Commission situated?6. What is a coalition government?Short answer type questions1. What is known as a National Political party? Write.2. Write about the characteristics of political parties.3. What is a mid term election?4. Write about the main functions of the Election Commission.5. What is an electoral roll? Write its uses.6. Write four functions of political party.7. Write four characteristics of a political party.8. Describe the role of the opposition party.9. Write down the functions of the election commission.Long answer type questions1. Explain the type of political parties on the basis of the number of political parties.2. What is the political party system? Explain its importance.3. Explain the major demerits of the Indian Election procedure.4. Write about the Indian election procedure.5. Describe the importance and functions of political parties.6. Explain the principles of franchise.7. Write about the functions of the election commission.

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Constitutional Rights and Duties of Citizens

�We Will Study

14.1 Fundamental Rights:Meaning and importance

14.2 Fundamental Rightsincorporated in theconstitution

14.3 Directive principles ofthe state policy

14.4 Differences between fun-damental rights and di-rective principles of statepolicy

14.5 Fundamental Duties14.6 Legal Rights available to

citizens● Right to Property● Right to Information

14.1 Fundamental rights, Meaning andimportance

The Indian Constitution is divided into 22 parts.In the Indian Constitution Fundamental Rights havebeen enumerated in chapter three, Directive Principlesof state policy in chapter four and FundamentalDuties in chapter 4(A); this was added to itafterwards. In fact they are parts of the same system.It is an effort to establish the declared aims of theConstitution i.e. justice, freedom, equality, fraternityetc. in practice. These are the foundation andessential parts of the democratic life style adoptedin India. Rights are those conditions of life whichare essential for the complete development of thepeople. In a democratic society a citizen needs somerights to lead a free life. These are associated withtheir basic needs and dignity. Therefore we call them'Fundamental Rights'. The society recognises thembecause they are essential for all. The state

recongnise them. In case of violation of these rights they can be enforced through thecourts. In fact the fundamental rights are a sort of restriction on the arbitrary proceedingof the state government to the officers working is it. These are provided for the physical,mental, moral, cultural and all round development of an individual. A citizen develops hispersonality to the fullest due to these rights.

The rights which are essential for the all round development and dignity of acitizen are incorporated in the constitution of the country, and are protected bythe Judiciary and called the Fundamental rights.

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Fundamental Rights

Right toEquality

Right toFreedom of

religion

Cultural andEducational

Rights

Right tConstituti

Remedi

Right againstExploitation

Right toFreedom

14.2 Fundamental Rights incorporated in the Indian constitution-The following six fundamental rights have been included in the Indian constitution:-

Rights to Equality-

The following rights to equality are provided to us-

i.Equality before the law : Article 14 of the Constitution guarantees to eachcitizen equality and protection before the law. Nobody is above the law and the law isconsidered paramount authority, and every person whatever be his rank or position, issubject to the jurisdiction of an ordinary court regarding a common offence. It aims torestrict the arbitrary power of the legislature as well as the executive body.

Article 15 of the constitution provides that no discrimination shall be made by thestate between citizens on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex and place of birth. Noone can be barred from using shops, public places, hotels and all places of publicentertainment on the above grounds.

No person or state shall discriminate on any ground for the use of wells, tanks,bathrooms, roads, fairs etc. which have been made for public use. The state is empoweredto make special public rules. The state is empowered to make special provisions forwomen, children and socially backward persons. Such provision shall not be deemed tobe inequality.

ii. Equal opportunities in Public Appointments : Article 16 of theConstitution provides for equal opportunities for all citizens in matters of publicemployment. The state will provide equal opportunities for all citizens according to theirqualifications. There shall be no discrimination on the basis of religion, caste, sex, raceand place of birth in this regard. The state is empowered to lay down the necessaryqualification for state services. The state shall make provisions for reservation inaccordance with article 16(4) for the services under it for members of any backwardclasses in case there is no adequate representation of these classes. Under the 77th

amendment to the Constitution the state may also make reservations for promotions.

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iii. Abolition of untouchability : Article 17 of the constitution has abolisheduntouchability with a view to bring social equality among its citizens. Civil RightProtection Act of 1955 provides that the practice of untouchability by the state orcitizens be a punishable offence. Therefore no person shall be prohibited from enteringpublic institutions, places and religious areas etc. No person can be humiliated onaccount of there caste or any other basis.

Practice of untouchability in any form is a punishable offenceunder the Indian Constitution.

During the Birtish rule citizens were conferred titles such as Rai Bahadur, KhanBahadur and Sir etc. These titles created impediments in the unity and equality andgenerated the feeling of being high and low. Therefore with the enforcement of theconstitution these titles have been abolished. Special honours relating to military, educationand science and non military citations such as the Bharat Ratna, the Padma Vibhushan and thePadamshri conferred by the President of India after independence for laudable works/services are an exception.2. Right to Freedom

Articles 19 to 22 of the constitution guarantee the Right to freedom to citizens. Thisarticle provides them the right to freedom of expression, belief, religion and worship. Thishelps them in developing their personality. We enjoy the following freedoms.

i.Freedom of Speech and Expression : All the citizens of India have full freedom toexpress their ideas. Speech is its powerful means. They can express their ideas through thenewspapers, the radio, thetelevision and painting. But aperson should express his ideaskeeping in view thesovereignity, integrity, securitypublic order, decency, morality,friendly relations with foreigncountries and respect to courts.The state can impose reasonablerestrictions on the aforesaidbasis on speech and freedom ofexpression.

ii. Freedom toassemble peacefully withoutarms : Under this right citizenshave the freedom to assemblefor meetings, processions and

Right of Freedom

Freedom of speech and expression

Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms

Freedom to form Associations and Unions

Freedom of movement

Freedom to live and settle in any part of India

Freedom to take up any job or trade anywhere in India

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demonstrations. These should take place peacefully and without arms. The governmentcan impose reasonable restrictions on this right. Keeping in view the sovereignity,integrity and public security of the country.

iii. Freedom to form Associations and Unions : Freedom to form unions.A Union is a group of people assembled and organised to achieve a common objective.The constitution grants the freedom to form unions and associations to the citizensaccording to their will. These unions may be commercial, economic, political, culturalor any other type of partnership, club, labour, union type of associations. The state mayimpose restrictions on these unions too, keeping in view the sovereignity, integrity andpublic order of India.

iv Freedom of Movement : India is a vast country in which people ofdifferent castes and religions reside. All the citizens of India have the right to movefreely in the territory of India without any restrictions.

v. Freedom to live and settle in any part of India : The citizens of Indiacan reside and settle in any part of the country. It has been considered essential for thenational integrity and unity. Therefore the people of one province and language canreside among the people of another province and in any other part of the county. Therights to move and reside in any part of the country are mutually inter-related, andsupport the integrity of the nation. The state can impose proper restrictions in theinterest of the public at large and for the security of the culture, custom and languageon their freedom.

vi. Freedom to take up any job or trade anywhere in India - Any citizenof India can choose any legal means of livelihood, trade or occupation. Along with theabove what right, he shall have the right to close down close down according to his will.It means a citizen can not be compelled to do a job against his will. The state canprescribe the professional or technical qualifications essential for a particular profession.Restrictions can be imposed on any trade which is considered against the interest of thegeneral public. For example the restriction is imposed on the citizens against trade ofdangerous and intoxicating goods, adulterated goods, of trafficking in children andwomen.

Protection against conviction for an offence : No person shall be convicted ofany offence except for violation of a law in force at the time of the commission of theact charged as an offence. A person may be subjected to only those penalties which wereprescribed by law in force at the time when the offence has been committed. A personcan be punished for the same offence only once. No person can be compelled to giveevidence against himself.

Protection of Life and Personal liberty : According to article 21, no personshall be deprived of his life and personal liberty except according to the procedureestablished by law. Every person has the right to live with human dignity along with the

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right to life and personal liberty. It includes the opportunity of dignified livelihood andfreedom from the practice of bonded labour. But no one can exercise the freedom otherthan the procedure prescribed by the Constitution.

Protection against Arrest and Detention - Article 22 provides the followingsafeguards against arrest and detention -

� No person can be arrested without being informed about the offence.

� No offender can be deprived of his right to consult his lawyer for his defence.

� No person can be detained without the permission of the court, for morethan 24 hours. Meaning thereby that every such person should be producedbefore the nearest Magistrate within 24 hours.

Preventive Detention - Preventive Detention can be made to restrict a personfrom committing an illegal act. The person who attempts to disturb national security,peace and public order can be arrested for some period of time. This can not exceedthree months. In such cases the person has to be informed of the reasons for hisdetention and has to be provided the right to file his representation.

Suspension of the Right to Freedom - In the event of external aggression andinternal disturbances, the right to freedom under article 19 may be suspended under theorder of the President, but the right to freedom guaranteed under Article 20 & 21 cannot be suspended.

3. Right against Exploitation -Articles 23 & 24 of the Constitution prohibit immoral traffic in human beings,

begging, forced labour and employment of children below 14 years of age in factoriesand hazardous employment. Provision has been made against their exploitation. Its aimis that no person or the state can force any other person to work against his will and noperson act can be permitted to misuse any human body. The state can impose essentialservices for public order such as for the armed services.

4. Right to Freedom of Religion -The Republic of India has been declared a secular state. It means that the state has

no religion of its own or is atheistic and this means that every religion has been givenequal respect in the state. There shall be no discrimination on the ground of religion.Every person shall have the right to profess and have equal freedom to practice his/herown religion. Articles 25-28 explains the right to freedom of religion.

i.Freedom of conscience and religion - All persons are equally entitled tofreedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practice and propagate theirreligion. This freedom is also limited for ensuring public order, good conduct and healthof the citizens. The state can make rules related to religion for the regulation of stateaffairs.

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ii. Freedom to manage religious affairs - All religious communities shallhave the right to establish and maintain religious institutions. They can collect andmanage funds. But it should be in accordance with the law.

iii. Taxes can not be imposed for the maintenance of any particular religion.

iv The constitution prohibits imparting of religious education in thegovernment aided educational institutions. In the matter of other institutions no personshall be compelled to acquire religious education or worship.

5. Cultural and Educational Rights:

Cultural and Educational Rights are provided to all citizens of India under articles29 and 30 of the Constitution of India.

The following are the provisions in this regard.

(i) Every citizen of India shall have the right to conserve his/her own language,script or culture. The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminateagainst any educational institution on the ground of religion caste, sex, language etc. Noeducational institution can deny admission on these grounds.

(ii) All minorities, whether based on religion or language shall have the rightto establish and administer educational institutions of their own choice. They shallmanage them also. But in the case of maladministration the state shall have the right tointerfere.

6. Right to constitutional remedies:

The arrangements for the security of the Fundamental Rights have been made in thearticles of the constitution from 32 to 35. The state cannot enact a law which may limitor abolish fundamental rights. Any person can move the courts for the protection of hisfundamental rights. The court can nullify such laws which disregard the fundamentalrights. Thus the enforcement of the fundamental rights is guaranteed by the Constitution.The court for this purpose can issue five types of writs.

Writs for Constitutional Remedie

HabeasCorpus

Prohibition Mandamus Certio

Court writs

(i) Habeas Corpus - The court can issue an order to the detaining authority topresent the detained person before the court.

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(ii) Mandamus - The court issues orders to an officer or institution to perform anact which falls within its jurisdiction.

(iii) Prohibition - It is a writ issued by High courts to lower courts when they exceedthe limits of their power or jurisdiction.

(iv) Certiorari - The writ of certiorari is exercised by the High Court. The HighCourt can summon the record file or a case from the lower court in order to verifythe records.

(v) Quo Warranto - When a person, officer or an institution does such a work whichis legally not in his jurisdiction then this writ of Quo Warranto is issued by theHigh Court to the lower courts. These writs are issued for the violation offundamental rights, against those persons or institutions who have violated them.The constitution provides us with the fundamental right to property also, but from

the very beginning it was very controversial. Therefore through the 44th amendmentAct of the constitution in 1979 the right to property was eliminated from the listof fundamental rights and it is now an ordinary legal right.

14.3 Directive Principles of State policy

The directive principles of state policy are included in the Constitution, toestablish a welfare state and to provide all the citizens social, economic and politicaljustice. The Directive principles of state policy are the directions given to the Centraland State government by the framers of the Constitution, to decide their policies. Theseare the directions which guide every officer of the government and administrationregarding their behavior. If functioning is not in accordance with these, then citizenscannot appeal in court, as can be done with respect to the fundamental rights. Directiveprinciples of state policy have been considered as the duties of the state. These arespecial features of the Indian constitution and have been added keeping in view socialisticand liberal principles.

Directive Principles of state policy is the dream of the fulfillment ofeconomic and social revolution in India. These aim to fulfill the basic requirementsof the common man and to make the Indian public equal and free in the true sense bybringing about a change in the structure of the society. These are enumerated in thearticles 36 to 51 of part 4 in the constitution. They aim at-

(1) a welfare state

(2) developing India in accordance with the ideals of Gandhiji.

(3) promoting international peace and security by the state.

(1) The Welfare System

(i) to make available equal means of livelihood for both men and women.

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(ii) utilisation of resources of the country for the welfare of the people.

(iii) wealth and means of production should not be concentrated in the hands ofa few but their utilisation should be for public welfare.

(iv) there should be equal pay for equal work for both men and women. Theirhealth and their children's health and energy should not be misused.

(v) The youth and children should be protected from economic and moraldegeneration.

(vi) There should be employment and education for all and the state shouldhelp in case of unemployment and inability.

(vii) The State should provide just and humane working conditions.

(viii) All should be provided a dignified standard of living, enough leave and socialand cultural facilities, the standard of food and health should be good.

(ix) Compulsory and free education should be made available for children. The86th amendment of the constitution 2002, provides equal opportunities ofeducation to children between 6-14 years of age.

(2) Directive principles in accordance with the ideals of Gandhiji(i) To promote cottage industries.

(ii) Organisation of village Panchyats and to make them function as selfgoverning units.

(iii) Promotion of educational and economic interests of scheduled castes,scheduled tribes and other backward sections and to save them fromexploitation.

(iv) Prohibition of consumption of intoxicating goods (except medicins).

(v) To organise agriculture and animal husbandry on a modern and scientific basis.

(vi) To protect and improve the breeds of milk and draught cattle.

(vii) Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forestsand wild life.

(viii) Protection of important national and historical monuments.

(ix) Separation of judiciary from the executive in public service.

(x) To frame civil and criminal laws for the country.

(3) Promotion of international peace-(i) To promote international peace and security.

(ii) To maintain just and honourable relations between nations.

(iii) To respect international laws and treaties.

(iv) To make efforts for the settlement of international disputes by arbitration.

The above directive principles of state policy will help in the establishment of a

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welfare state. The evaluation of success can be made on the basis of implementation.Government can keep a check on political riots for maintaining social economic anddemocratic order. It will also help in building the nation and establishing world peace.These are the sacred wishes of the framers of the Constitution, and are also theprinciples of social and economic ideals and are the mirror of public opinion.

14.4 Difference between fundamental rights and Directive principlesof state policy-

Following are the major differences between fundamental rights and directiveprinciples of state policy.

(1) The constitution stands behind the enforcement of fundamental rights,where as public opinion is the force behind directive principles of statepolicy. If there is a violation of fundamental rights of citizens by any lawof the government then for its protection the court declares the law as nulland void. If there is any law against the directive principles of state policythen the court cannot declare those laws as null and void. But the statecannot violate these principles easily due to the fear of public opinion.

(2) Fundamental Rights are prohibitory whereas directive principles of thestate policy are not prohibitory. Fundamental Rights can stop theGovernment from performing some functions, whereas directive principlesof state policy direct the government to fulfill their duties.

(3) The aim of fundamental rights is to establish political democracy whereasdirective principles of policy aims at the establishment of economic andsocial democracy.

(4) Fundamental Rights are for citizens whereas directives principles of thestate policy is the duty of the government. These are the instructions givento the government for policy making and practice.

14.5 Fundamental DutiesWhen the Indian constitution was framed, only fundamental rights were incorporated

in it, there was no discussion on duties in it, whereas rights and duties are two sides ofthe same coin. Through the incorporation of fundamental rights only, citizens becomeaware of their rights but remained indifferent about their duties. For correcting thisdrawback, 10 fundamental duties were enumerated for the citizens by adding part IV-A tothe constitution in the year 1976, by the 42nd constitutional amendment by theparliament, which are the following :-

1. To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, theNational flag and the National Anthem.

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2. To respect and follow those noble ideals which inspired our nationalstruggle for freedom.

3. To protect the sovereignity, unity and integrity of India.

4. To defend the country and render national service when called upon to doso.

5. To promote harmony and the spirit of brotherhood amongst all the peopleof India.

6. To maintain the tradition of rich heritage of our composite culture.

7. to protect and improve the natural environment.

8. to develop a scientific temper and curiosity.

9. to safeguard public property.

10. to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collectiveactivity.

It is the responsibility of every citizen of the state to follow the fundamentalDuties.

Duties and Rights are two sides of the same coin. We cannot enjoy rights withoutfulfilling the duties. If citizens fulfill their fundamental duties then it will be easier forthem to enjoy their fundamental rights. If citizens do not follow their duties then therewill be irregularities and the environment will be disturbed. Fulfillment of fundamentalduties develops a healthy social environment. There is no legal action for violation offundamental duties in the constitution. There is no provision for punishment if these aredisrespected but they are our responsibilities towards our nation. Fundamental duties arethe inspiration for strengthening the country's cultural heritage, national property,individual and collective progress, defence system of the country etc. and to protect theenvironment, to respect national ideals and to maintain social harmony.

14.6 Legal Rights available to citizens

Besides the fundamental rights, certain legal rights are also available to thecitizens. Legal rights are those rights which do not fall under the category of fundamen-tal rights but are available to the citizens under Law. Legal rights can be withdrawn bythe Government at any time; constitutional amendment is not needed for this purpose.Under this category two rights are important viz. 1.Right to property and 2. Right toinformation

●●●●● Right to property

The right to property was available to the citizens as a fundamental right in theconstitution earlier. But this remained debatable right from the beginning. This funda-

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mental right was therefore withdrawn with effect form June 1979 vide the 44thconstitutional Amendment Act of1978, although it is still available as a legal right.

●●●●● Right to information -

The Right to Information is an important step in the direction of strengthening thedemocracy. The Government of India, through an act viz. The Right to Information Act2005 has given this right to the people of the country to obtain information from anyGovernment office. For the past many years, lot of efforts have been made for ensuringpeople's participation in the development programmes. Introduction of the PanchayatiRaj system and associating the local community in supervision and monitoring of publicworks is an important step in this direction. However, people were not able to effectivelyparticipate in the development programmes, public services and facilities provided by theGovernment because of lack of information about the rules and regulations relating tothose works and schemes, but now it has become possible to ensure transparency in thegovernment schemes and works. This is an important step in preventing favouritismduring the process of decision making and putting an end to corruption in governmentworking .

Important features of the Right to Information Act

❖ Who has the right to Information - This right is available to everycitizen of the country. Any citizen can obtain information from a public authority relatingto that organisation. Besides, all public authorities display important notices for publicinformation relating to their day to day functioning.

❖ Meaning of Public Authority - All such authorities ('Pradhikarans') andinstitutions which have been set up under any law of Parliament or a Legislativeassembly, come under the Category of Public Authority. Besides, corporations / Socie-ties etc. which are autonomous or non-government but receive government grant or areunder the control of the Central or State government are also covered in the Act. ThusPublic Authorities comprising of Government organisations, Departments and bodiesconstituted under the Constitutions are covered by this Act.

What information can be got under Right to Information?

● Information relating to Government or any department relating to Government.

● Photocopies of Government contracts, payments, estimated expenditure,measurements of construction works etc.

● Samples of material used in the construction of roads, buildings, drains etc.

● To see completed works or works under progress.

● If any complaint has been made and application has been given, theninformation about the progress in the matter of can be obtained.

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● Information about government projects which are implemented by anygovernment department or voluntary organisation.

● Under such circumstances the Information Commission may recommenddisciplinary action against the Public Information Officer as per the service conductrules applicable to that P.I.O. Under the Right to Information many types of informationcan be obtained. Any information relating to Gram Panchayat, services provided in thevillage like of 'Anganwadis', ration shops, health centres and government hospitals, tahsiloffice, land records, police station, Forest Department, Agriculture department, 'KrishiUpaj Mandi', bank, post office, Railways department, Public Health Engineering Depart-ment, Rural Engineering Services, Court, School, College, University, Janpad Panchayat,Zila Pachayat, Collectorate, office of Superintendent of Police etc. i.e. any sort ofinformation relating to government offices and related bodies can be obtained fromJanpad district and state level office under this Act.

❖ How to obtain information - Information can be obtained in two ways :

1. Through published information - Government Departments and organi-sations publish information about their activities, their achievements, progressetc from time to time; thus information can be had from such publications;

2. By submitting applications - The applicant has to submit an applicationon simple paper, to the competent officer of the concerned department ororginisation requesting for the type of information or copy of a documentneeded. Some fees may be charged for such informaiton / copy of thedocuments.

❖ Forms in which the information can be had-

Information can be had under the Right to Information from Government Office ororganisation in following ways:

1. Photocopies of documents

2. Copy of C.D., floppy, video cassette etc. of a document or data

3. Publications which the concerned organisation may have published

4. Documents can be perused in the concerned office itself

❖ Exemption from disclosure of any information -

Some informations which can not be made public in the interest of the sovereigntyand integrity of the nation, national security, information of strategic importance ordisclosure of which may harm the economic or scientific interest. The Government ororgansations are not obliged to furnish the following types of information:

● Disclosure of which is likely to have an adverse effect on the sovereigntyand integrity of the country, relating to defense and strategic importance,

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which may have an adverse effect on the scientific and economic interestsor foreign relations of the nation.

● Which may lead someone to commit a crime.

● Disclosure of that which has been forbidden by any court of Law orTribunal or may amount to contempt of court.

● That which may amount to breach of privilege of the Parliament orLegislature.

● That which is likely to harm the (commercial or business) interests of anythird party.

● Information available to a person in his fiduciary (i.e. based on trust)relationship; unless the competent authority is satisfied that disclosure ofit is needed in the larger public interest.

● Information received in confidence from a foreign government.

● Information disclosure of that which would endanger the life or physicalsafety of any person.

● Information, which is likely to adversely affect investigation of any crime,arrest of a criminal or the prosecution process.

● Papers and documents relating to the cabinet including documents relatingto discussions with the cabinet secretaries and other officers.

❖❖❖❖❖ Fees for obtaining information -

No fees are charged from applicants who are living below the poverty line; forothers, a sum of Rs.10/- in cash or in the form of a stamp paper of that amount ischarged. Application addressed to the Public Information Officer may be typed orhandwritten. Fees for application before the first Appelate officer is Rs. 50/- and forsecond appeal before the State Information Commission is Rs. 100/-.

After submission of the application the applicant is informed by the PublicInformation Officer about the amount of expenses that the would be required to be paid.A receipt is necessarily to be given by the Department/ Organisation for the fees chargedfor the application or other costs. There is a provision that the Public InformationOfficer should ensure disposal of the application within 30 days of its receipt.

❖ Action on complaints and appeals and time limit

In case of incomplete information or information which is not fully correct theapplicant may put up an appeal within 30 days before the first Appelate Officer. Onreceipt of appeal from the Appelate Officer, normally action has to be taken within 30days and a maximum of 45 days; the applicant should also be informed accordingly. Incase the first Appelate Officer does not take action on the complaint within 30 days and

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informs the applicant, then the applicant may put up a second appeal, within 90 days,before the State Information Commission.

❖ Punishment for non furnishing of information -

Officers who do not furnish information are punished under the following situa-tions :

● In case the Public Information Officer or the Assistant Public InformationOfficer refuses to accept the application.

● The information is not furnished within the prescribed time limit.

● For furnishing deliberately wrong, incomplete or misleading information.

● If an attempt is made to destroy the information asked for.

Under the above circumstances the Information Commission may punish the PublicInformation Officers with a fine ranging from 250/- per day to a maximum of Rs.25,000/-. The Commission may also recommend to the concerned Head of the Department,disciplinary action against the Public Information Officer.

Constitution of the Information commission

Under the Right to Information Act there is a provision of constituting a CentralInformation Commission at the national level and a state Information Commission at thestate level. In the State Information Commission there is a provision of appointment ofa Chief State Information Commissioner and a maximum of 9 Information Commission-ers. The State Chief Information Commissioner and Information Commissioners areappointed by the Governor as per the advice of a committee headed by the ChiefMinister. Other members of this Committee are Leaders of the opposition in the VidhanSabha and a minister nominated by the Chief Minister. The term of office of the ChiefInformation Commissioner and Information Commissioner is 5 years.

Functions and powers of the State Commission

1. The function of the State Information Commission is to enforce the Rightto Information. It ensures that the bottlenecks and difficulties experienced bypeople in obtaining information under the Act are removed; it hears com-plaints / appeals with regard to the Act.

2. The commission may order an enquiry in any case relating to the right toinformation.

3. The commission is vested with all powers relating to a civil court.

Under these powers, the Commission can issue summons, ensure the presence ofthe concerned party at the time of hearing and order to put up witnesses.

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Principles behind the Right to Information

The Right to Information is mainly based on three principles. These are :

1. Answerability - Ours is a democratic government. The Governmentsunder democracy work for the public good. They do not function only for particularpersons or a class. Therefore, the Government and its related organisations and authoritieshave been made responsible (and answerable) to the people. It is necessary thatinformation should be given to the public by these organisations.

2. Participation - In a democratic set up, most of the works are done for thepeople and with the cooperation of the people. It is necessary that people are alsoassociated in the formulation of plans so that necessary and timely amendments andcorrections are made in the plans in the larger interests of the people.

3. Transparency - The third basis is transparency in the government func-tioning. Transparency in the work of government is necessary to prevent wastage of timeand money spent on government schemes, prevent misappropriation of public funds andalso corruption. Transparency will put a check on corrupt people and honest people willbe able to work fearlessly and impartially.

Importance of right to information

Under democracy the government is of the people, for the people and by thepeople. Well informed people and transparency in information are the basic needs ofdemocracy. The importance of right to information will ensure the following things -

1. Enable people to effectively use the fundamental rights - The right toinformation is inherent in the fundamental rights. It protects the right of freedom ofspeech and expression. In the absence of information and facts, a person can not frameand express opinions effectively. The Supreme Court has related this right to theprovision under Article A 21 of the Constitution relating to the right to live.

2. To make the Government responsible - It makes the Governmentresponsible as it is based on the principle of answerability. So long as Public and otherorganisations are not made answerable to the people for their deeds and accounts ofincome and expenditure, the possibilities of slackness in work, corruption and misuse ofpublic funds will increase.

3. To make Government working transparent - One of the importantobjective of this Act is to bring about transparency in Government functioning whetherthe peoples' representatives are making proper use of their rights and funds, are beingproperly used or not, this information should be known to the people. The right toInformation will bring about increased transparency in government functioning andpressure will be built in favour of careful use of public funds.

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4. To increase peoples' participation in Government functioning - TheIndian constitution is based on participatory democracy. Till recently, due to absence ofnecessary information of schemes and government works, people were not active andtheir participation in Government functioning was limited only to casting of votes in theelections. Thus this Right will prove to be an effective tool in increasing peoples'participation in government functioning.

5. Check on corruption - The right to work is an effective tool to curb theincreasing corruption in the Government. Due to transparency and answerability, corruptperson / persons will immediately be identified and legal action can be taken againstthem. This will help in preventing people form doing illegal work and this right will behelpful in ensuring good governance.

6. To make Governement schemes successful - Right to information playsan important role in making government schemes successful. The success of governmentschemes depends on two things - one, schemes are completed in the desired manner andthe in scheduled time and secondly, benefits of the scheme reach the real beneficiaries.The Right to information is an effective tool in achieving both the objectives. This helpsin curbing procedural delays also.

Thus we see that 'Right to Information' is an important right.

Terms

Constitution : Supreme Law of country. It consists of the fundamental lawsfor running society and politics of any country.

Constitutional : The changes in the constitution of any country brought aboutAmendment by the Parliament of that country.Secular : Citizens have full right to follow any religion, but there will

be no state religion. Government respects all religious beliefs.Reservation policy : Policy to reserve some posts and seats in some educational

institutions in government service for victims ofdiscrimination and deprived and backward people and groups.

Writ : Formal written order issued by High court or Supreme Courtto the government.

ExerciseI. Choose the right option and write.

1. Which fundamental right has been eliminated from the list of fundamental

rights through 44th amendment Act?(i) Right to property (ii) Right to Freedom

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(ii) Right to equality (iv) Cultural and educational rights2. Which function out of these comes under the category of child labour?

(i) A child of less than 14 years of age working in hotels, constructioncompanies.

(ii) Movement and acquiring education by a child below 14 years of age.(iii) Playing of children below 14 years of age.(iv) Doing physical exercise by children below 14 years of age.

3. Which of these rights is not associated with the fundamental right of freedom?(i) Right to freedom of speech (ii) abolition of titles(iii) Freedom to reside and settle in any part of India(iv) Freedom of movement

4. Through which writ can the High Court or Supreme court summon any recordof life from its lower court?(i) Habeas Corpus (ii) Certiorari(iii) Quo Warrants (iv) Mandamus

5. Right to free and compulsory education of all children between 6 to 14 yearsof age comes under which fundamental right -

(i) Right to equality (ii) Cultural & educational rights(iii) Right to freedom (iv) Right to constitutional remedies.

6. Out of the following who protects the fundamental rights -(i) Parliament (ii) Legislative Assemblies(iii) Supreme Court (iv) Government of India

7. In case timely information is not furnished, first appeal is made to -(i) Head of the Department ii) Public Information Officer(iii) Information Commission (iv) Chief Minister

8. Out of these which is the directive principle of state policy -(i) Bound by law (ii) Eligible for justice(iii) Creative directions to the state (iv) Directives of Judiciary

II. Fill in the blanks :1. The ................ stands behind the enforcement of fundamental rights.

2. The Right to information act is a strong medium to stop the .................. .

3. Article ............... of the constitution guarantees to each citizen equality and protectionbefore the law.

4. Practice of .................. in any form is a punishable effence under the Indianconstitution.

5. The ................... as a fundamental right had been withdrawn with effect vide the 44thconstitutional Amendment.

Very short answer type question1. What is meant by equality before the law?

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2. Write the names of different types of fundamental rights.

3. In the constitution what provisions have been made for abolition ofuntouchability?

4. For whom are the Directive Principles of policy meant?

5. Who has the right to information?

6. Which Act has been passed in Madhya Pradesh for availing right to information?

7. On which principles is the right to information based?

Short answer type questions1. What is the difference between fundamental rights and directive principles of the

state policy? Explain.

2. How do fundamental rights get judicial protection? Explain.

3. Fundamental rights and fundamental duties are two side of the same coin. Explainthe above statement.

4. What are the directions for the promotion of international peace in the directiveprinciple of policy? Write.

5. What freedom have been provided to us through the Right to freedom?

Long answer type questions1. What are fundamental rights? Explain the importance of fundamental rights.

2. What are the freedoms enjoyed by the citizens under Right of freedom?

3. What are the main writs issued by the court under right to constitutional remedies?

4. Describe any two principles on which Right to Information is based. In case desiredinformation is not furnished in time, what step should be taken.

5. Explain the importance of Right to Information and write about the constitution of"Information Commission."

6. What are fundamental durites? What are the fundamental duties described in theconstitution?

7. Mention and explain the types of directive principles of policy.

Project Work● What are the freedoms you experience in your day-to-day life? Prepare a list and

see how they help in your development by this. Try to learn about the fundamentalrights related to freedom. Describe it in the form of a project.

● Prepare a chart about the fundamental duties and put that up in your classroom. Read itonce daily and try to recollect how many duties you have followed in a day. In this mannerinspire your friends also to be aware towards all your duties.

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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�We Will Study

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Growth of Rural Economy

15.1 Measurement ofeconomy and ruraleconomy

15.2 Development of villagebased ancient economyof India

15.3 Steps taken by the gov-ernment to develop ru-ral economy

15.4 A comparative study ofancient and modern ru-ral economy

15.5 Concept of ideal village15.6 Economic study of a se-

lected village of MadhyaPradesh.

In a country's economy, are included all kindsof natural resources available in that country andthe economic activities being conducted. The termeconomy is associated with a country but it canalso be associated with city, town and village. Acity's economy includes factories, shops, offices,schools, banks and all other work places located inthat city. Similarly a village economy includesfirms, shops, and all other establishments wherepeople work. Thus an economy is a system wherepeople earn their living.

An economy is a system by which peopleearn their living and it comprises of theproduction units existing in that area. Inother words we can say, an economy of acountry includes shops, mines, banks, roads,schools, colleges, universities, hospitals etc.which provide employment to people and

produce goods and services which are used by the people of that place.

India is an agriculture based country. It has been the main occupation since thebeginning. From the bronze age, the Indus civilization till today agriculture has been themain occupation of Indians. In the Vedic Age, agriculture was the main basis of theeconomy. The contribution of animal husbandry, hunting and handicrafts was also veryimportant. The chief jobs were of carpenters and black smiths due to excessive numberof wars in the medieval period. Inspite of this agriculture was the main occupation inIndia in the Medieval period too. Due to this reason different rulers made efforts fromtime to time to develop it. Canals were constructed by Mohammed bin Tughlaq toincrease facilities of irrigation. Measurement of land was done by Sher Shah Suri.During Akbar's reign Todarmal got the measurement of land done in an accurate mannerand on that basis decided the amount of tax. At that time the main source of income ofevery big and small state was agricultural production. During this period there wasspecial growth in textile production. As far as quality is concerned Dacca was famous for

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its muslin dyeing, weaving of silk cloth, shawls and mats producing industries were alsoimportant. Trade and commerce was greatly developed. Therefore the economic structurewas sound.

On the basis of the characteristics, Indian economy can be divided into twocategories - Geographical and work based. If we take the geographical basis then it is oftwo types - Rural economy and urban economy. We will study in detail about ruraleconomy in this chapter.

15.2 Growth of Rural Economy

Most of the population in India resides in villages. Therefore the importance ofrural economy is great. We can divide Indian rural economy into three parts for theconvenience of study - (i) Rural economy before the arrival of the British, (ii) Ruraleconomy after the arrival of British, (iii) Rural economy of India after Independence.

(i) Rural economy before the Arrival of the Britishers.

In ancient times also the majority of the population resided in villages. In factvillages were a major unit of the economy. At that time villages were self sufficient,prosperous and happy. The ancient rural economy was very different from the presentvillages. Its characteristics can be explained on the basis of the following points.

Structure of workingcommunity : There were threemain components of the workingpopulation or community in ancientvillages - Farmers, artisans andvillage officers.

Farmers : The most importantcomponent of the rural economywas the farmer. The special featurewas that every farmer in the villagehad his own house and share in theland. They were resourceful.Livelihood was the primaryobjective of farming.

Artisans : In every village all types of artisans were there — carpenters, blacksmiths,potters, gold smiths, craftsmen, cobblers, weavers etc. They fulfilled the needs ofvillages in the village itself. The remuneration for their work was paid in the form ofgrain or commodities.

Main parts of Working Community

Farmers Artisans VillageOfficer

Cheif Maalgujaar

KotwaarChief Kotwat

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Village officers : The village officerswere of three types. (a) Head (Mukhia)- Hewas the chief officer of the village and wasresponsible for collecting the rent from thefarmers and then paying it to the ruler. (b)Maal gujar- Record keepers of land revenue.(c) Kotwal- Who informed the ruler aboutcriminals and provided other importantinformation to the ruler.

Characterstics of the rural economybefore the arrival of the British

Self sufficiency - Villages were self reliant and self sufficient. Self sufficiencymeant that villagers fulfilled their needs through local resources only. It was possiblebecause of two reasons. First the needs of villagers were limited and second there waslack of means of transport and communication.

Barter System - Barter system of exchange was prevalent in the ancient ruraleconomy. The farmers obtained the required goods and services from artisans and moneylenders and gave them food grains in exchange. All the payments for the services of thepandit, the doctor, the barber, the washerman were made in the form of grains or otherthings.

Barter system of exchange was a system in which goods were exchangeddirectly with goods or services. Money was not used.

Simple division of Labour - Economic activities were divided. The division ofwork was hereditary or based on tradition as farming and animal husbandry, and on casteor in accordance with traditions e.g. blacksmiths, gold smiths, carpenters, cobblers,barbers, washermen etc. This division of labour was absolutely simple.

Immobility of labour - It was a significant characteristic of ancient economy. Dueto lack of means of transport, the caste system, the problem of language and food habits,labourers used to stay in their villages. Generally they did not go out of their villages.

Indifferent attitude towards the State - The villagers were not interested in theactivities of the state.

(ii) Rural Economy of India after the arrival of BritishersWe know that the Britishers made India their colony and ruled over our country for

about 200 years. They exploited India as well as Indians in every way. They adopted suchpolicies due to which prosperous India had to face poverty and starvation. It affectedagriculture and industry adversely and the nature of Indian economy also underwent achange.

Characteristics of Rural EconomyBefore the arrival of the British.Structure of rural working community :● Self Sufficiency● Barter System● Simple division of labour● Immobility of labour● Lack of contact with the outer world.● Indifferent attitude towards the state.

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The following changes were seen in the structure of the economy-

Decline of workmanship and handicraft - As a result of policies of the Britishthe handicraftsmanship in Indian villages declined.The artisans of the villages became unemployed.Prosperity and wellbeing of villages came to anend.

Changes in the structure of ruralcommunity - The rural community which wasdivided into three parts - farmers, artisans andvillage officers. This was now divided into severalparts - Zamindars, farmers, landlords, land-lessfarmers, cultivators, agricultural labourers etc.This division was an important reason ofbackwardness of agriculture.

End of self sufficiency of villages - As a result of commercialisation ofagriculture the crops were transported and sold out of the villages and the requiredcommodities were brought from outside to the villages. Thus, the self sufficiency ofvillages came to an end.

Transfer of agriculture land - Farmers started meeting their requirements bytaking loans due to widespread poverty. But due to the inability to repay loans themoneylenders started confiscating their land. Thus the agricultural land was transferredto the money lenders from farmers. As a result the farmers became land-less andhomeless.

Backwardness of Agriculture - The Zamindari system started by the English hada bad effect on farmers and farming. The farmers became poor and in debt. Neither thegovernment nor the Zamindars showed interest in the improvement and productivity ofthe land which resulted in the exploitation of farmers and farming.

(iii) Modern Rural Economy ( After Independence)

Even after half a century of India's Independence 72.2 percent of the total populationof India resides in villages and only 27.8 percent population resides in urban areasaccording to the 2001 census. In the same way the number of villages is 6,38,588 whilethe number of cities is only 5,161. It means that out of every 10 persons, 7 reside in

villages. Today also India is a country of villages, and the economy is Agro based. 2/3rd

population of the country directly or indirectly depends upon agriculture for theirlivelihood. But the contribution of agriculture to the gross product of the country is only26 percent. Rapid economic growth has taken place through the five year plans and the ruraleconomy has also not been left untouched due to this. The economic condition of the

Characteristics of RuralEconomy after arrival of theBritish● Decline of workmanship and

handicraft● Change in the structure of the

rural community● End of self sufficiency of villages● Transfer of agricultural land● Backwardness of agriculture

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villages is changing. Several changes can be observed inthe rural economy. Of those, the chief are as following-

The structure of the community on the basisof ownership of land - We can divide the farmersinto four categories on the basis of ownership of landavailable to them -

(i) Big farmers - These who own land between2-10 hectares.

(ii) Medium farmers - Those who own 2 hectareor a little more than 2 hectare of land.

(iii) Small farmers - who own less than 2hectare of land.

(iv) Landless farmers - who do not own anyland, are tentant farmers or are agricultural labourers.

Multiple cropping- Now mainly three cropsare produced during a year. Kharif, Rabi and Jayed.Kharif crops are crops of the rainy season which are harvested around September-October. Jayed is crop of summer. Today apart from traditional crops cultivation of cashcrops is also being practised; for example farming of flowers, oilseeds etc.

Migration of population towards cities -The rural population is migrating towards urban areasdue to poverty, starvation, unemployment, lack ofbasic facilities etc. In 1951 out of the total population,the percentage of rural population was 82.7 percentwhich came down to 72.2 percent in 2001 where asthe population in 1951 was 17.3 which increased to27.8 in 2001.

Rise of Monetary System - The earlier systemof barter, prevalant in villags is now almost extinct. Today currency is used everywhere.In rural areas also money is used as a medium of exchange for buying and selling.

Inadequate facilities of transport and communication- Today a lot of effort isbeing made to link all villages through means of transport and communication but mostof the roads are kachha roads. Therefore in the rainy season many villages are cut offfrom the neighbouring villages/areas. The rest of the year trucks, buses, trains, Jeeps,motorcycles and cycles are being used. At present villages are also linked by means oftelevision and telephones.

Characteristics of ruraleconomy after Independence● Structure of community on

the basis of ownership ofland.

● Multi cropping.● Migration of population

towards urban areas.● Rise of Monetary System● Inadequate facilities of

transport andcommunication.

● Development of subsidiaryand cottage industry.

● Institutional changes● Extension of education and

health facilities.

Percentage of Rural & Urbanpopulation after independence.

Year Rural Urban

1951 82.7 17.3

1971 80.1 19.9

1991 74.3 25.7

2001 72.2 27.8

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Development of subsidiary and cottage industries - After independence a lot ofattention was paid towards cottage and small scale industries to make them strong anddeveloped. According to the availability of local raw material in each village, cottageindustries were developed which increased employment opportunities and farmers wereable to increase their income by working in their free time.

Institutional Changes - Comparatively, in a very short span of time the farmersin the villages have started adopting new technology. Now pumps are being used insteadof 'Rahat' for irrigation. The plough is substituted by furrows and bullock carts by trucksand tractor trolleys. Big machines are being used by big farmers. The use of threshersis very common today.

Extension of Education and Health Facilities in India - Modern villages aregenerally becoming aware of the heed for education and health. The children of bigfarmers are acquiring higher education.

In all villages there are primary, middle and higher secondary schools. Girls havealso started studying with boys in schools. Health facilities are also available in villages.Through means of communication, the villagers are becoming aware about their healthproblems and other problems.

15.3 Government Efforts for the Development of Rural EconomyFrom the very beginning, the Central Government and the State Government have

endeavoured for the development of villages and village economy through five yearplans and have achieved a lot of success. But, planty work is still to be accomplished.The government emphasised on public participation for the development programmesthrough self help groups and Panchayati Raj institutions. The government efforts can beexplained on the basis of the following points -

1. Land Reforms - Through the abolition of the Zamindari system, land ceiling, landconsolidation and by bringing cultivable wasteland under cultivation uneconomicland holdings have been made profitable. For restoration of land and to restrict itstransfer in rural areas, the government has distributed the wasteland and landobtained through a ceiling of land holdings, and ‘Bhoodan’ among the farmers. Cropinsurance policy has also been introduced. Loan facilities have been provided forthe modernisation of agriculture by establishing rural banks and government banksfor the fulfillment of rural finance. The government decides a minimum supportprice for the sale of crops at a reasonable price. The facility for storage andmarketing is also provided. Efforts have been made to connect all the villagesthrough road network. An aim to connect rural areas throughout the year by roadsunder the Prime Minister's road scheme of the central government has been made.

2. Housing, cleanliness and health : The government has introduced Indira AwasYojna in villages for healthy housing systems in place of unhealthy housing

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systems. The Central rural cleanliness programme has contributed a lot towards thecleanliness of rural areas. It has some other aspects also to bring quality to life andto provide dignity to women. Attention is also being paid towards cleanliness,potable drinking water and basic needs in schools. In villages awareness regardingfood, health, and education is being spread through family welfare centres andAaganwadi Kendras. Television and Radio are also playing an important role in thiswork.

3. Cottage and small scale industries : Cottage and small scale industries play asignificant role in the development of rural areas. The government is continuouslymaking efforts to develop them in rural areas. Several steps have been taken suchas -

1. The Government has established special institutions to solve the problemsof these industries. All India board of Handloom Industry, Indian CottageIndustry Khadi Gramodhyog etc. are examples of these types of institutions.

2. Bhartiya Laghu Udhyog has been established for giving financial help.

3. The government departments give preference to these sectors over othersectors in making purchase of goods produced by small scale industries.Apart from this, fairs, exhibitions, temporary markets etc. are arranged topromote their sale in foreign countries as well as in our country.

4. Training centres have been set up for technical assistance.

5. Thus by providing various types of protection to these industries theircompetition with large industries has been minimised.

In this manner through these steps of the government all efforts are being made forthe upliftment of villages. The ideals of Mahatma Gandhi - Father of the nation have beenmade the basis for strengthening the rural economy and efforts are being made accordingly.

15.4 A Comparitive Study of Ancient and Modern Rural Economy

On Comparative Before the arrival After the arrival Afterpasis of the British of the British Independence

1. Self sufficiency Villages were Self sufficiency Self suffi-completely decreased ciency ofindependent. gradually. villages came

to an end.

2. Objective The type of The type of farming Commercializa-of farming farming was changed from -tion has become

of subsistence subsistence to the chiefcommercial objective.

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3. Contribution of Contribution Contribution of Contribution ofagriculture in theof agriculture agriculture agriculture is de-National Income was maximum was maximum. creasing.

4. Economic There was Prosperity turned Poverty, unem-condition prosperity, into poverty. -ployment still

well being Excessive exists but isin the villages expliotation of decreasing

farmers started. steadily.

5. Landless farmers Each farmer The farmers became Zamindari systemowned a house landless. The land was abolishedand had a share was being transferred but there wasin the land. to money lenders no improvement

and Zamindars from in the conditionfarmers. of landless

farmers.

6. Methods of Methods of Ancient methods, At presentcultivation farming were manure and ancient and

old and irrigation irrigation system modern both thefacilities were was traditional. methods aretraditional. in use.

7. Rural finance Loan was provided Apart from local Today local system. by big farmers, moneylenders money lenders

moneylenders (Sahukars), Zamindars (Sahukars)(Sahukars and provided loans. CooperativeMahajans) The land Credit Societies,

was transferred Rural bankingdue to non payment institutions,of loans. are providing

loans8. Mobility There was complete Labour became Both geographical

of labour. absence of geo- mobile though and-graphical and the percentage of professionalprofessional mobility was mobilitymobility of labour. very low. has increased.

On Comperative Before arrival After arrival of Afterbasis of the British the British Independence

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9. Transport and There was lack The Britishers laid After independ-communication. of roads and railway lines and ence the network

means of transp- constructed roads of roads and rail--ortation. The only for facilitating -ways has beenmeans of commun- trade. Due to this greatly extended.-ication was roads and means of The facilities ofthrough messengers. communication communication

became available. have been extendedFor communication through post tele-post, telegraph -graph, phone,telephone and fax, and mobileradio also phones. Computbecame -ers are availableavailable in the gram -

panchayats.

10. Education Education was Facility of training At present train-and training limited to the higher was not available. -ing and education

section of society Education was has made hugeonly and was not limited to high and progress. Opport-very common. middle sections of -unity of educat-among the rural the society. There -ion is availablepeople. There was no education to all groups ofwas no facility among lower the society.for training for income groups andformers and lower castes.

artisans

Thus at present villages and villagers both have developed sufficiently. The mostimportant fact is that there is greater awareness among the villagers. As soon as they getthe resources, they become active for the welfare of themselves and their families. Theyhave knowledge and understanding of education, training, health, cleanliness and politics.Awareness leads to increase in involvement and co-operation of people which ensuresthe success of plans.

15.5 Concept of an Ideal Village

The important heritage of a country is its land and the people residing in it. Thespirit of India is in its villages. This is a country of villages. As a building is constructed

Basis of Before the After the arrival Afterarrival of British of British Independence

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brick by brick, similarly villages together constitute the huge republic of India. Todayalso 72% of population resides in rural areas. We know it quite well that inspite of theefforts made for their improvement the state of villages is still not good. Today alsovillages are scarcity stricken. As the word village comes to our mind a picture of hutsmade of hay or 'kuchcha' houses, dry fields, dust, dirty sewers, naked children runningand playing animals tied inside the houses, smell of cow dung, flies, illiteracy andmalnutrition comes to our mind though the picture is now steadily changing.

Village reform is essential to make the countrya leading country. If this is accomplished then Indiawill be a prosperous, rich and happy nation. We willhave to make our villages ideal villages. In an idealvillage agriculture should be developed and thereshould be proper arrangements for education, healthand housing. In the village there should be awarenesstowards cleanliness, and complete use of availableresources. Thus an ideal village should have thefollowing characteristics:

1. Advanced agricultural system - Forthe development of agriculture the small non-economic farms should be merged into one big farm.Consolidation of land should be adopted. Groupfarming, use of bio and chemical fertilizers to increasethe quality of crop, use of high yielding variety seeds

and modern facilities of irrigation should be in practice. There should be properarrangements for storage of crops and sale of crops through cooperatives and governmentassistance.

2. Housing facilities - In villages there should be proper facilities ofhousing. The houses should be clean whether they are 'kuchcha' or 'pucca and' along withthis there should be toilets and bathrooms in the houses. There should be separate spacefor animals and a proper system of preparing biogas by collecting cow dung.

3. Drinking water facilities - The wells, tanks and 'pucca' wells with stepsshould be renovated for clean and safe drinking water. Arrangements should be such thatno villager can dump waste into it. Attention should be paid for raising underground waterlevel in villages. There should be arrangements for proper drinking water for villagers.

4. Health facilities - In every village, there should be primary health centers,as well as doctors and medicines so that the problems of villagers can be solved at thevillage level itself. The villagers can avail the benefits of the government plans of health.

Characteristics of anideal village.● Advanced agriculture system● Housing facilities● Drinking water arrangements

in place● Health facilities● Education facilities● Facility of transport● Facility of communication● Awareness towards energy

and environment● Industrial development● Administrative system● Financial facilities

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5. Education facilities - Efforts should be made to educate each and everychild of the village. There should be awareness among villagers of the need for theeducation of girls. There should be provision of adult education in villages along withtraditional education. Nutritive and clean midday meal should be provided.

6. Facilities of transportation - For proper facility of transport thereshould be roads in villages so that it can be connected with nearby villages, small townsand district headquarters. Roads should be such that they can be used in all seasons byall people.

7. Communication facilities - There should be proper provision forcommunication facilities; telephones, post offices and internet facilities.

8. Awareness towards energy and environment - There should be aprovision of electricity for power in villages. If possible, alternative energy should beused. There should be awareness among villagers towards their environment. Such asystem should be developed by which the villagers use the refuse in a proper way and ifpossible recycle it. Villagers should be active towards the use of trees and plantation sothat greenery spreads in villages.

9. Industrial Development - The agro-based industries should be developedin the village for example - dairy industry, poultry industry etc. Cottage industry shouldbe developed in villages through which villagers can get employment in their ownvillages and their income can also be increased.

10. Administrative System - We have a system of Panchayts in our villages.The members of the Gram Panchayat and Sarpanch should be aware of the need and beactive for the development of villages so that the facilities of cleanliness, drinking water,health and security can be made available to villages. Administrative transparency shouldbe increased. The employees of each office in which the village secretariat, thePanchayat Bhawan, Aaganwadis, Cooperative societies and school buildings are included.They should be motivated to keep their offices clean. The name of the buildings shouldbe written permanently.

11. Facility of Finance - The villagers mainly depend on local money lendersfor finance. They often exploit them. In an ideal village, facilities of rural banks and co-operative banks should be provided, so that villagers may have facilities of finance. Thesaving habits in villagers can be increased by making them aware towards self-helpgroups.

15.6 The Economic Study of a selected Village of Madhya PradeshWe all want India to be an advanced, rich, prosperous and happy country. This dream

can come true only when we are able to understand the strengths and shortcomings ofthe conditions of our villages and the life of people in them and bring about animprovement.

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We can try to solve the inconveniences and problem of villagers with the co-operation of villagers themselves, by studying a village and the resources and facilitiesavailable there.

By the term economic study we mean a study of the available resources, population,mean of livelihood, economic conditions means of transport and communication,forestry, park, market, finance and social and common conditions of a specific area. Forthe economic study of a village, first of all we have to decide the objective of the studyand thereafter decide the area of study andprepare a study plan. For any studyknowledge of statistical data is required.For this tables and questionnaire areprepared.

As an example of the study of a villageof Madhya Pradesh, the economic study ofvillage Dimini of district Morena was taken.

Geographical situation of village :village Dimini is situated on MorenaMahagaon state highway, 17 km. away fromMorena city in the north. From theadministrative point of view, on the extremenorth Madhya Pradesh is a revenue village of tehsil Ambah of Morena District. The totalarea of this revenue village is 383 hectares.

VILLAGE DIMNI

Area - 383 Hectare

Population - 2,346

Population Density - 612 person

Annual Rainfall - 70 cm.

Soil - Loamy,alluvial rocky

Major - 41% engagedOccupation in Agriculture

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Climate : the influence of continental and subtropical climate is clearly seen onthe climate of village Dimini. Very hot in summers and very cold in winters is a

characteristic of this climate.Rains are uncertain and irregular.The average annual rainfall is70 centimeters.

Soil and Vegetation : Infact the economy of villageDimini is agro based. Fertilesoil is therefore the basic needof its people. Loamy, alluvialand rocky soil is found here.The village is affected by theerosion caused by the river. Thewestern part of the village is rugged. The productivity of land is affected by soil erosionand spread of its rugged area. The excessive flow of rain water is seen here in thecurrents of the nearby river and as scanty moisture in soil. Therefore artificial irrigationis necessary for agriculture. The river Qwari on the one hand is beneficial for the village

Village - Dimni, Distt. - Morena (M.P.)

River Apardan (Qwari River)

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but on the other hand some times it becomes the cause of floods and of soil erosion.There are semi dry (monsoon) deciduous type forests. Neem is a useful tree here. Thethorny Babul vegetation is seen all around the village which is spread in the residentialarea also. Thorny trees like 'Cheekur' thorny shrubs like 'Kareel' grass type vegetationlike 'Sarpatta' and Dwau is found here if which rope is made. These are used in theconstruction of huts. Banyan trees, Sheesham, Pakri and Peepal are also found here. Oaktrees are found in large numbers.

Population: In 1971-72, population of village Dimni was 1088 and density ofpopulation of this village was 284 person per square kilometer. According to the censusof the year 2001 its population increased to 2,346 and its density of population to 612persons per square kilometer, but according to the data obtained from a survey major partof the population is below 18 years of age. i.e. 46% of the total population. Thecontribution of the working population i.e. 18-60 years of age group is about 50% of thetotal population. The percentage of the people above 60 years of age is only 35. In theyear 2006 the total population of the village was 2115. There is a possibility ofmigration of some people from the village.

Structure of Populaiton - Village Dimni (2006)

S.No. Age group Male Female Total Percentage ofage group in

total population

1. Children and adolescent 537 435 972 46.0

(Below 18 years)

2. Young (18 to 35 Years) 385 349 734 34.7

3. Adult(35 to 60 years) 184 151 335 15.8

4. Old (Above 60 years) 51 23 74 3.5

Total 1157 958 2115 100

According to the available data the majority of the population is below 18 years ofage i.e. 46% Working population (18-60 Years) contributes 50% of the total population.

Nature of housing : On the basis of the nature of housing the houses can bedivided into four types. Mud houses, cemented houses, mixed houses and hut typehouses.

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Nature of Housing

S.No. Nature of Housing Total No. of Percentage of househouses out of total houses

1. Cemented houses 120 56.6

2. Mud houses (Kuchha house) 25 11.8

3. Mud and cemented, mixed house 31 14.6

4. Hut type houses 36 17.0

Total 212 100.0

In the village Dimni out of the total houses 11.8% are mud houses, which are madeof local mud and wood, 14.60% are of mixed type (made of mud and cement) The outerparts of these houses are cemented and the internal parts are made of mud. 17% housesof this village are hut type houses of which all the four walls are made up of mud. Thehuts are situated, on the south western and eastern parts of the village. According toownership, in the village Dimni 98.6% houses are private and 1.4% (03) are governmenthouses which are rented.

Economic structure of the village : Originally the economic structure of villageDimni was also agro-based. The Maximum no. of people of the village practise farmingor apart from doing household work directly help in farming. The work of farming ismostly done by the males. Most of the female population is absorbed in household work.

Working population of village Dimni

S.No. Occupation Working Population Percentage of totalMale Female Total

1. Farming 310 28 338 41.00

2. Household work 02 318 320 38

3. Service 75 07 82 10

4. Labourer 49 06 55 7.00

5. Business and trade 35 00 35 4.00

Total 471 359 830 100.0

The majority of the population of Dimni i.e. 40% is involved in agriculture out ofwhich 92% are male and 8% are females, whereas the minimum working population isattached to business and trade, 99% ladies are absorbed in household work.

Service class population is only 10% of the total population. Here the main

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business and trade is related to differentshops of daily requirement goods,agricultural equipment, agriculturalproducts and animals.

These commercial centres aredeveloped along the road side. Thecondition of shops inside the villages isvery poor. The other workers are labourers,artisans and members of music bands.There is not a single child labourer in theworking population of Dimni, only at homegirls help in garland making.

Family Income village Dimni

S.No. Total No. of Level Percentageannual income families of families

per family

1. Below 5000 70 lowest 33.0

2. 5000 to 10000 39 low 18.4

3. 10000 to 20000 38 Lower medium 17.9

4. 20000 to 50000 37 Medium 17.5

5. More than 50000 28 High 13.2

Total 212 100%

The annual income of the maximum member of families i.e. one third of the totalnumber of families is below 5000/-

Standard of living : To measure the standard of living of the villagers thefollowing four criteria were fixed (1) Structure of house (2) Household articles (3) selfowned vehicles of daily use and means of communication (4) Supply of water andelectricity. To measure the standard of living on the basis of these criteria first the useof each house hold article is evaluated according to its utility, quality and price and thenthe levels are fixed. The same information is shown in the following table.

Girls engrossed in the work of makinggarlands in a village

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Standard of living of families in village Dimni 2006

S. Category Level Total No. ofNo. families (%)

1. Double storied cemented house High 23 11.8%(Pucca house)* Colour television, refrigerator, washing

machine, gas burner and other articles.* Jeep, car, telephone, mobile phone.* Proper arrangement of water and

electricity supply2. Cemented house (Pucca house) Medium 84 40.0%

* Moped, scooter, motorcycle, tractor,telephone and mobile phone

* Ordinary arrangement of electriclight and water supply

3. Mixed mud (Kachha) house and Low 105 49.0%hut type house* Fan, stove and ordinary chulha* Cycle, bullock cart* Minimum necessary arrangement of

electricity and water supply

Total Average 212 100%

About half of the total number of families i.e. 49% have a low standard of livingwhereas 10.8% families have been viewed as those which are high standard families.

Regarding the standard of living 40% families are of medium level and 41.9% arebelow the poverty line.

As a result of the economic study the following problems of this village came tolight.

1. The irrigated area in this village is limited. Irrigation is possible only throughtanks and wells. Therefore the productivity of land is low.

2. The rural area is affected by land erosion and erosion caused by the river. Themaximum problems are found in the south western residential area.

3. There is no proper use of water resources, whatever water resources are availablehere, they have not been completely utilised. Due to the shortage of electricityfull utilisation of electric pumps is not possible.

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4. Though the income is low, people spend too much money on family and socialceremonies/functions, for example twenty thousand to ten lakhs of rupees are spenton marriages. In the same way, Rs. ten thousand to forty thousand are spent onrituals performed on deaths; Rs. 500 to Rs. 2000 is spent on festivals etc.

5. In a planned residential unit too no proper arrangements have been made fordumping garbage. Therefore garbage spreads all over the roads and cannot be usedfor making compost manure for agriculture.

6. There are no job opportunities in the village. The different kinds of work availablework and the crops of the village do not provide enough income for the whole year.Villagers migrate from the village for earning money and are exploited. They haveto work on low wages.

Suggestions to solve the economic problems of village Dimni:

● Special efforts should be made to control the spread of Qwari's rugged area. Damsshould be built on the banks of the river. Rain water should be stopped at differentplaces and for its drainage cemented pipe lines should be constructed.

● Training programmes for villagers should be arranged, so that they can getknowledge of preparing bio-manure and realise its importance. Effort should bemade for the development of the oil industry.

● For the economic development of farmers, godowns should be constructed for thestorage of agricultural products. Efforts should be made for the development of theoil industry.

● Opportunities for self-employment should be increased. Attention must be paidtowards the development of the dairy industry.

● Efforts can be made to establish self-help groups to ecourage the people of savemoney. Discussions can be arranged in the meetings of Gram Panchayat ShikshakPalak Sangh etc. to raese awareness about unnecessary expenditures.

Apart from the above suggestions the villagers should solve their problemsthemselves through the persons associated with gram Panchayat and education by usingthe available resources in a better way. The role of teachers is very important in makingthe villagers aware and active.

Terms

Zamindari system : Lord Cornwallis introduced this system in 1793 in Bengal, inwhich a Zamindar was appointed to collect land revenue. Theybecame mediators between the government and farmers for thecollection of land revenue.

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Consolidation of land (chakbandi): This is a procedure in which farmers are preparedto be exchange this piece of land of the same size and samequality for another. This consolidation of land is voluntary aswell as compulsory.

Land reform : It is related to each and every institutional change of ourorganisation or land system. Land reform includes in it anyreform related to the ownership of land or land holding.

Division of labour : Division of work among the labourer according to their specificabilities.

Barter system : Direct exchange of one commodity for another. This systemwas prevalent before the use of money as a medium of exchange.

ExerciseI. Choose the correct alternative and write.

1. Who owns resources in a capitalistic economy?

(i) government (ii) Individual

(iii) Both (iv) None of the above

2. Which Mughal ruler gave priority to the construction of canals to increaseirrigation facilities?

(i) Mohammad Tughlaq (ii) Akbar

(iii) Shahjahan (iv) Humayun

3. Before the arrival of the Britishers rural economy was based on-

(i) Currency system (ii) Self sufficiency

(iii) Imports (iv) None of the above

4. The percentage of rural population India in the year 2001 was-

(i) 21.4 (ii) 32.0

(iii) 65.1 (iv) 72.2

5. When was land reform introduced in India?

(i) After independence (ii) before the arrival of the Britishers

(iii) in the Vedic period (iv) none of the above

II. Fill in the blanks :

1. An ................. is a system by which people earn their living.

2. Now mainly .............. crops are produced during a year.

3. The primary objective of farming was ................ before the arrival of the Britishers.

4. The Zamindari system started by the ........................ .

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III. State true or false :

1. The government decides a minimum support price for the sale of crops atreasonable price.

2. Villages got completely independent after the arrival of the British.

3. For the development of agriculture the small non-economic farms should bemerged into one big farm.

4. Contribution of agriculture in the National income is increasing after Independence.

Very short answer type question

1. Explain the term "economy".

2. How were the village economies in India organized before the arrival of theBritishers?

3. What is meant by self sufficiency of villages?

4. What were the main categories of the working population of ancient villages?

Short answer type question

1. State the structure of the Indian rural working community before the arrival of theBritshers?

2. Why did the transfer of land-holding start after the arrival of the Britishers?

3. Why did the barter system of exchange prevail in India?

4. What changes occured in the structure of rural economy after independence?

5. Why did the population migrate from villages to cities?

Long answer type question

1 Write about the characteristics of ancient rural economy of India.

2. What efforts did the government take for the development of rural economy afterindependence?

3. How do cottage and small industries help in the development of rural economy ofIndia? Explain.

4. Give a comparative study of rural and modern economy.

5. What are the characteristics of an ‘ideal village’? Explain.

6. Discuss the efforts which are needed to make a village self-sufficient and developed.

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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�We Will Study

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Poverty : An Economic Challenge for India

16.1 Meaning of poverty

16.2 Measurement of povertyin India

16.3 Statewise populationbelow poverty line

16.4 Causes of poverty

16.5 Major programmes forsolving poverty in India

India is a country with a developing economy.After Independence, especially during the planningperiod the different aspects of Indian economyimproved qualitatively as well as quantitatively. Todayas a result, Indian economy is placed among the mostpowerful economies of the world. Although we havereached high dimensions of economic developmentthrough the growth of economy, simultaneously manychallenges have also arisen, such as - poverty, rapidlyincreasing population, wide spread unemployment,rapidly increasing prices i.e. problems of price rise,

regional imbalance and increasing economic disparities, lack of basic facilities and foodshortage etc. The most severe among all these economic challenges is the problem ofpoverty, which we will discuss in this chapter.

16.1 Meaning of Poverty

Scarcity of wealth is the reason of poverty. The poor economic condition of somepeople does not lead to poverty but when a majority of the people of a society are unableto fulfill the minimum requirements of life then this situation is known as poverty. Ifessential facilities of housing, clothing and food are not available to the majority ofpeople of a society then it is called a situation of poverty.

It is very easy to identify poverty but it is difficult to define it. When we seeshattered dwellings and families living in slums all around us, beggars begging at railwaystations and cross roads, labourers working in agricultural farms, then we can call suchdeprived people as poverty stricken. The people living below the poverty line are definedas poor.

By below the poverty line family is meant that the minimum economic standardwhich is necessary for their livelihood is not available to that family.

16.2. Measurement of Poverty in India:

Two criteria are generally used to measure poverty. First absolute poverty andsecond relative poverty.

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Absolute poverty - Absolute poverty is the inability to afford the basic amenities(food, clothing and health). All those people living below poverty line are included under it.

Relative Poverty - means disparity of income. It implies international economicinequalities and regional economic disparities. The National Sample Survey Organizationmeasures the population living below poverty line in India from time to time (generallyevery five years).

16.3 State wise Population below Poverty Line

During the past years there has been a continuous decline in the population of poorpeople lineing below the poverty line in India. In. 1973-74 it was 54.9 percent in 1983it was 44.7 percent and in 1993-94 it was 36 percent and in 1999-2000 it was 26.10percent and in 2006-07 it is 19.3 percent.

Poverty Line

According to a team of experts set up by the Planning Commission "Taskforce on minimum need and effective Consumption Demand", those peopleare considered below poverty line who are unable to obtain nutrition of 2400calories per day in rural areas and 2100 calories per day in urban area. Theconcept of the poverty line was first given by the Indian economist, ShriDandekar.

According to the Central Rural Development Ministry -The poverty line relates tosuch families whose annual income indifferent states is between Rs. 13,900 toRs. 16,900 per annum. This income isfixed for an average family of fivemembers. Each state can decide adifferent limit of poverty line.

Looking at the table indicating thenumber of poor, we can say that thepercentage of poverty has beencontinuously declining. The extent ofpoverty in various states of India is not uniform. According to the report issued by thePlanning Commission in September 2005 Dang (Gujrat) is the poorest district in India,Banswada district of Rajasthan and third is Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh.

The estimated situation of poverty in the year 2006-07 in different states is shownin the table. According to the table the numbers of people living below the povertyline in India is maximum in Bihar, Orissa and Sikkim.

Population below poverty line in India(in percent)

Area 1993-94 1999-00 2006-07

Rural 37.3 27.1 21.1

Urban 32.4 23.6 15.1

Total 36.0 26.1 19.3

Source - Indian Economy 2006, Finance Department.Approved by Government of India.

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Statewise population below the poverty line in India

State / 2006 State / 2006Union Territories Estimated Union Territories

Orissa 41.04 Andhra Pradesh 8.49

Bihar 43.18 Lakshadweep 4.59

Madhya Pradesh 29.52 Rajasthan 12.11

Sikkim 33.78 Gujarat 2.00

Assam 31.33 Kerala 3.61

Tripura 31.88 Haryana 2.00

Meghalaya 31.14 Delhi-National Capital area 2.00

Arunachal Pradesh 29.33 Himachal Pradesh 2.00

Nagaland 31.86 Punjab 2.00

Uttar Pradesh 24.67 Chandigarh 2.00

Manipur 30.52 Daman Diu 2.00

West Bengal 18.30 Goa 2.00

Maharashtra 16.18 Jammu & Kashmir N.A.

Pondicherry 32.00 Tamil Nadu 6.61

Andman & Nikobar

Islands 5.82 `Karnataka 7.85

Mizoram 20.76 Dadar Nagar Haveli 2.00

Source- Indian economy 2006 (awarded by Finance Ministry, Government of India).

India is a rich nation, but Indians are poor.

Often it is said about India that - India is a rich nation but its residents are poor.It is an ironical statement. India is a wealthy nation but the second part of the statementinfers that Indians are poor. Let us understand the irony of this situation.

India is a rich nation

From ancient times India has been considered a geographically and culturally richnation. Here natural resources are in abundance for development. India's geographicalarea is very vast, natural resources are good, climate is favourable, forest wealth is inadequate quantity, essential resources of energy are also available in adequate quantityand human power is also enough.

The main reasons for calling India a rich country are as below -

1. Geographical Position - The geographical location of India is suitable

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from the point of view of development. In the north the Himalayas act as alert watchmen.The peninsular location of the country and the presence of the Indian Ocean links Indiawith different international trade routes. India's location for airways is also very suitable.Thus the geographical location of India is very appropriate for economic developmentand foreign trade.

2. Monsoon Climate : The climatic conditions of India are monsoon based,as a result of it different types of agricultural products are grown in the country.Different industries of our country get enough raw material from it. Owing to differenttypes of climatic conditions we can grow different types of food and cash crops.

3. Abundant Water Power : We get water throughout the year from theperennial rivers originating from the Himalayas. These rivers play an important role inan agricultural country like India. Today we use this water power for irrigation and toproduce thousands of Kilowatt of electricity but we have not been able to make use ofthis resource to the fullest.

4. Forest Wealth : Out of a total area of India, the percentage of forest areais 19.39. We obtain fuel, oil, gums, timber wood, 'Kattha', lac, leather, dyeing materialetc. If the forest wealth of India is used efficiently then it may prove to be very usefulin the development of the country.

5. Availability of means of energy and minerals in abundance : India is a richcountry in minerals and means of power. Out of the total stock of iron in the world onefourth stock is available in India. India also leads in the production of manganese andmica. We have plenty of stock of coal, bauxite, gypsum, thorium and uranium materialswhich are used for production of atomic power.

6. Human Resources - The 110 crore population of India is able to facemany types of challenges. If this resource is used in a planned way then the developmentof the country can be enhanced.

Inspite of India being rich in the above resources Indians are poor.

16.4 Causes of Poverty in India

The main causes responsible for poverty in India are the following -

1. Defective Development Strategy - In India a contradiction of poverty with growthis seen because the benefits of development are limited to only some people. As a resultof it the poor are becoming poorer and the rich richer. Opportunities for further progressare available to the educated and people who have facilities while the poor are unable toobtain higher and technical education, due to lack of money. The Government has madejob opportunities available but its progress is very slow.

2. Unemployment - Unemployment in India is widespread. According to an

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estimate there are about 5 crore unemployed people in India. The number of unemployedpersons is increasing continuously, which is an important factor for poverty. In ruralareas disguised unmployment also exists along with unemployment and seasonalunemployment. The increasing number of unemployed people decreases the productivityof individuals and the standard of income.

3. Low per capita income : In India poverty is expanding because of low percapita income. As compared to the developed countries of the world The per capitaincome in India is very low.According to the report of the World Bank of the year 2004the per capita income in India is only 480 Dollars (about Rs. 24,000/- p.a.). Low percapita income is the chief reason of poverty in India.

The vicious cycle of poverty

Low per capita income results inless saving and less demand forconsumer articles. As a result ofthis capital formation anddemand also decreases. Then in aform of chain reaction productionemployment and income alldecrease one by one as a result ofeach other.

4. Rapid growth of population : The population in India is increasingrapidly. As regards population India ranks second in the world. Every year about 1.81crore people are added to the existing population in India. According to the census of2001 the annual growth of population in India during the decade 1991-2001 was 1.93.This leads to low per capita income and consumption and low standard of living. Itpromote poverty.

5. Use of natural resources : Minerals, forest wealth and human resourcesetc. in India are in abundance. But till now they have not been used in a proper way. Theunder utilisation of natural resources is also a reason of poverty.

6. Inflation and Price rise : A huge amount of wealth is spent on theaccomplishment of the development tasks. It generates inflationary pressure on theeconomy and the prices start increasing. As a result the problem of poverty becomesmore severe.

7. Low standard of technical knowledge : There is a scarcity of thefacilities for technical education and research etc. in India. About 36 percent of the

Vicious Cycle of PovertyLow per

Capita Income

Less SavingLess Demand

LowCapital

formation

Less Production

Less employmentLow Income

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population of India is illiterate. The productivity declines as there is lack of technicaleducation and facilities of training.

8. Low Productivity : In India productivity is low, therefore, proper returnsfrom the resources are not obtained and the people remain poor. Low productivity in theagriculture sector is the chief reason for rural poverty.

9. Uncertainity in Agriculture : Indian economy is based on agriculture,which depends on the monsoons. The Monsoon is always uncertain due to which thereare fluctuations in the agricultural production. Natural calamities affect agriculturalproduction adversely, which results in poverty.

10. Lack of means of transport and communication : In India the rapidgrowth of agriculture, industries, and the tertiary sector is not possible as means oftransport and communications are not fully developed.

11. Social reason : People of India spend a big amount of their income onvarious programmes because of socio-cultural customs. On the one hand it decreasessavings and on the other hand it increases indebtness. Apart from this, ignorance,fatalism, a conservative attitude are also the causes of poverty in India.

Here the question under consideration is that though India is endowed with enoughnatural wealth even then it is a poor country, and Indians are leading lives in poverty andunemployment. There are means of prosperity in India but due to inadequate use of thesemeans of prosperity, Indians are living in poverty.

16.6 Main programmes for eradication of poverty in India:

The Indian planners were concerned from the very beginning about the eradicationof poverty. In this direction the government is endeavoring to promote economic growth.It has adopted many poverty- alleviation programmes and has launched many schemes tofulfill the needs of people of the rural areas. The following are the main programmes forthe eradication of poverty.

1. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojna (SGSY) : It was started on 1st

April, 1999. The programme aims at bringing the poor families above poverty line withina period of three years by organizing them into self help groups through a mix of bankcredit and government subsidy. This programme also aims at generating additionalincome for the rural poor. This is being conducted through the District village DevelopmentAgency ( Jila Gramya Vikas Abhikaran).

2. Swarnjayanti Shahri Rojgar Yojna : This scheme was launched on 11th

December, 1997 for the eradication of poverty in urban areas. The scheme aims atproviding financial aid to the poor in the urban areas for self employment and forcreation of useful assets in the village.

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3. Prime Minister Rojgar Yojna : The scheme started on 2nd October,1993. It aims to create self employment opportunities for the educated unemployedyouth between the age 18 to 35 years in rural areas and small towns.

4. Grameen Rojgar Srajan Karyakram : This scheme was launched in April1995 with the aim to establishing projects and creating self employment opportunitiesin rural areas and small towns.

5. Annapoorna Yojna : This scheme was started on 1st April, 2000. Thisscheme aims to provide food security to people of 65 years of age and above who wereeligible to obtain pension under the National Old Age Pension Scheme but are notgetting it. Under this scheme per month per head 10 kilograms of food grains areprovided free of cost. In the year 2002-03 the National Social Help Program was mergedwith it.

6. Janshri Yojna : This scheme was launched in August 2000, to providesocial security to the poor section of society. Under this scheme Rs. 20,000 in case ofnatural death, Rs.50,000 in case of death or permanent disability in an accident and Rs25,000 in case of partial disability is provided to the concerned person.

7. Sampoorna Grameen Rojgar Yojna : This scheme was launched in therural areas with the aim of increasing job opportunities along with food security. Thelabourers working under this scheme are paid a minimum quantity of food i.e. 5 kilogramof cereals and a minimum 20 percent wages in cash. The aim of this scheme is to providesecurity to the weaker sections of society.

8. Gram Samradhi Yojna : A declaration to launch this scheme was made inMarch 1999. The present existing Jawahar Rojgar Yojna will be changed in a way that allthe funds can be spent by the Gram Panchayats, so that they can use it in ruraldevelopment progammes. Thus they will have power to prepare and implement annualplans related to this work.

9. Antyodaya Anna Yojna : was launched on 25th December, 2001. The mainobjective of this scheme is to provide food grains to the people living below the povertyline, who are included under the targeted public distribution system. In this scheme 35Kilograms of cereal per month is distributed to 1.50 crore poor families on specialconcessional prices. The Central Issue Prices of wheat and rice under this scheme areRs.2 and Rs.3 per kilogram respectively.

10. Employment Guarantee Act (2005): Its main aim is to provide 100 daysemployment every year to at least one adult of each rural or urban poor and low incomefamily. Under this programme it is necessary to provide employment to an applicantwithin 15 days. If employment is not provided within the due time then an unemployment

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allowance will be given to the concerned person. The allowance would be at least one

third of the minimum wages. This scheme was implemented on 2nd February, 2006 in200 most backward districts of the country.

Terms

Disguised unemployment : The unemployment seen in the field of agricultureindicates to the zero marginal productivity of thelabour. It means if these labourers are transferredelsewhere from agriculture yet it does not affect theproductivity of agriculture adversely directly orindirectly.

Under employment : When a person does not get a job according to hisefficiency and works below the level of his ability andefficiency then it is categorized as under employment.

Per capita Income : An average income obtained by a person in a financialyear.

Cyclic unemployment : The unemployment that is generated during thedepression period of trade cycle, is called cyclicunemployment.

Inflation : It is a stage when the value of currency diminishes andprices of goods and services increase in the market.

Price rise : The difference between the price of the production of afirm and the cost of goods purchased by another firm.

Natural resources : The free gifts of nature to human beings which help inthe economic development.

ExerciseI. Choose the correct alternative and write -

1. The basis of the comparison of income level is -

(i) absolute poverty (ii) Relative poverty (iii) complete poverty (iv) None of these

2. The state having maximum population of poor, in India -

(i) Meghalaya (ii) Assam (iii) Bihar (iv) Madhya Pradesh

3. For how many days is employment provided under the Employment Guarantee Act(2005)

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(i) 25 days (ii) 50 days (iii)75 days (iv) 100 days

II. Fill in the blanks :

1. An average income obtained by a person in a financial year is called .................. .

2. ...................... porerty means disparity of income.

3. The concept of ................... was first given by the Indian economist Shri Dandekar.

4. The poorest district of Madhya Pradesh is .................. .

5. To measure the poverty in India generally two criteria are used first is absolutepoverty and second .................. .

III. True or false :

1. Rapid growth of population increases the poverty.

2. Punjab is the poorest state of India.

3. Employment Guarantee Act provides 5 kilograms of cereals and a minimum 20percent wages in cash.

4. People are considered as below poverty live in India who are unable to obtainnutrition of 2100 calories per day in urban areas.

5. According to the report of planning commission in 2005 Jhabua district of MadhyaPradesh is the poorest district in India.

Very short answer type questions

1. What are the main economic challenges before India?

2. What is the poverty line?

3. Mention the names of three states of India having the largest population of poor.

4. Write about the social causes responsible for poverty.

Short answer type questions

1. How does growth of population increase poverty? Explain.

2. What changes have occurred in the condition of poverty during the last years inIndia? Mention.

3. Explain the statewise condition of poverty in India.

4. Write about the main characteristics of the Employment Guarantee Act 2005.

5. What is the basis to measure poverty?

Long answer type question

1. What are the reasons responsible for poverty in India?

2. Describe in brief the main programmes for the eradication of poverty in India.

3. ‘India is a rich nation but its citizens are poor’. Explain this statement.

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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17.1 Meaning of industryIndustries play a very important role in the

economic development of a country. Industriesare helpful in the rapid economic growth of thecountry. No country can prosper without thedevelopment of industries.

When many firms produce a homogeneouscommodity or service then they all together arecalled an 'industry' for example - Iron and SteelIndustry of India includes -Rourkela, Durgapur,Bokaro, Tata Iron and steel Co. etc.

All the entrepreneurs are included in an industryin which goods or services are purchased through asystematic procedure by cooperation of employers

and employees to satisfy human needs and aspirations.

17.2 Classification of IndustriesThus we can classify industries on the basis of their ownership, utility, size, nature

�

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State of Industries in India

We Will Study

17.1 Meaning of industry

17.2 Classification of Industry

17.3 Status of industries in India

17.4 Importance of small scaleindustries in India.

17.5 Government efforts fordevelopment of small scaleindustry.

Classification of Indust

Basedon ownership

Basedon size

Basenature

HeavyIndustries

Basedon utility

BasicIndustry

ConsumersGoods

Industry

LargeScale Industry

MediumScale Industry

SmallScale Indu

PrivateSector

PublicSector

Co-operativeSector

MixedSector

AgI

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of goods produced and raw material used.

In this chapter we will study the state of industries on the basis of their size. Wecan divide industries into three parts on the basis of the amount of capital invested- largescale industries, small scale industries and cottage industries.

Large Scale Industry : These industrial units are those industries in which thecapital invested on plant and machinery is more than Rs.10 crores. They are categorisedas large scale industries. for example Tata Iron and Steel Company.

Medium Scale Industries : The industrial units in which capital invested on plantand machinery is upto 5 to 10 crores, they are categorised as Medium Scale industries.For industrial units of tertiary sector their limit is upto Rs. 5 crores for example -leather industry and silk industry.

Small Scale Industry : Those industrial units are included in the small scaleindustries where capital investment in plant and machinery is upto a limit of Rs. 5 crores.Regarding industrial units of tertiary sector the given limit is Rs. 2 crores. For example- Lac industry and glass industry.

Those industrial units are categorised as very small industries where the capitalinvestment on plant and machinery is upto 25 lacs, and for the service sector in industrialunits or tertiary sector, the limit is Rs. 10 lacs.

Cottage Industry : Those industrial units which are run completely with the helpof members of the family in the form of full time or part time business are cottageindustries.

In these units capital investment is nominal and the production work is done byhands for example - making baskets of bamboo, ivory work.

Village Industry : Cottage industries are run in villages as well as towns, but thosecottage industries which are run only in villages are known as village industry forexample - Handloom, Khadi and Silk Industries.

17.3 Status of Industries in India

Cotton Textile Industry: This is the oldest and main industry of India. The firstcotton mill in India was set up in 1818 in Kolkata. This is the largest and most extensiveindustry of India. Its contribution to the total industrial production of the country is 14percent, whereas its share in the gross export is 19 percent. Its share in imports is 3percent. The cotton textile industry is mainly localised in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,Gujarat.

The Capital Investment in this industry is about 5,000 crores rupees. This industryis providing employment directly or indirectly to 9 crore people. The Government hasfreed cotton industry from license through the cloth order (development and exchange)

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of 1993.

Iron and Steel Industry : Indiahas been famous for its iron andsteel industry from ancient times.The first attempt to produce ironand steel by modern methods wasmade in the year 1830 but failed.After this efforts were made in thisdirection continuously. First of allJamshedji Tata established the ironand steel company in Jamshedpur.

There are a total of 10 plantsin India. Out of these nine are in thePublic Sector and only one (TataIron and Steel Company) Jamshedpur(West Bengal), is under the private sector. The steel plants of the public sector areBhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bokaro, Vishakapatnam and Salem.

At present there are 196 small scale plants in the country. Out of these 170 unitsare running and the remaining are closed. The capital investment in this industry is90,000 crore rupees. It has provided employment to 5 lakh people. It was freed fromlicensing in the year1991.

Jute Industry : India stands first in the production of jute in the world. Out of atotal production of the world 50 percent is produced in India. India stands second in theexport of the jute products in the world. Gunny bags, rugs, ropes, decorative products andseveral other items are made of jute. The jute industry in India started in 1855.

In India 85 percent jute mills are in Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Assam andOrrisa. Out of the total production 62% is used to manufacture gunny bags. 20 percentas sack cloth and the rest 18 percent for other things.

At present there are 73 Jute mills running in India. The capital investment in thisindustry is about Rs. 300 Crores. 2.61 lakh people are employed in this industry.

Sugar Industry : Sugar industry is a major industry of India. It is an ancientindustry. It was developed in an organised manner in 1921 when the government grantedprotection to it. Therefore it is called a Protection Baby.

Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra play an important role in the production of sugarin the country.

In 1950-51 the number of sugar mills were 138 which has now increased to 566.In the year 1998 it was declared free from license restriction.

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Cement Industry : The cement industry in India was started between 1912-1914at Porbandar in Gujarat and Katni and Lakheri in Madhya Pradesh.

At present there are 128 big plants which have 18,209 crore tonnes productioncapacity. Apart from these, there are 332 small scale cement factories having aproduction capacity of 111 lakh tonnes. The capital investment in this industry is 800crore rupees and it provides employment to about 3 lakh people.

At present India is the fifth largest cement producer of the world after China,Russia, Japan and America. In 1991 it became free from licensing restriction. Theindustry has progressed in the field of production capacity, output and processingtechnology.

Information and Technology : The information technology industry is an industrybased on technology with the help of computers and its applications, computers,communication, technology and concerned software. The knowledge reaches throughmeans of communication and equipment. It is a knowledge based industry.

In India, the development of Information technology is recent, but it is growingrapidly. However, enormous efforts are required for making it competitive with developedcountries.

In India this industry developed after the International Treaty of 1994.

In 1994-95 , this industry earned Rs.6345 crore rupees which increased to 79337crore, in the year 2002-03. It shows that this is the fastest growing industry of India.

Small scale industries in India

Paper Industry : In India the art of paper making by hand developed is the ancienttimes. The first modern mill was set up at Bali near Kolkata in 1870.

At present there are several paper mills in India among which the chief are NationalNews Print and Paper Mill Limited. ( Nepanagar, Madhya Pradesh) and Security PaperMill ( Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh). At present there are 515 paper mills in thecountry.

Paper is produced by all types of production units, small, medium and large. Thecontribution of small and medium units is 50 percent of the total product. At presentin India, around 15 lakh people are employed in this industry.

It ranks twentieth in the world in the production of paper.

The chief paper producing stages in India are Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, WestBengal, Orissa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,Bihar and Kerala.

Leather Industry : It is one of the oldest industries in India. This is a traditionalindustry. There are several things which are made of leather such as coats, jerseys,

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purses, playing material, toys, monkey caps, belts, hand gloves, shoes, foot wear etc. Themajority of the leather goods in the country are produced in Tamil Nadu, Kolkata,Kanpur, Mumbai, Aurangabad, Kolhapur, Dewas, Jalandhar and Agra. Out of the totalproduction of leather goods 75 percent is produced by small scale and cottage industries

In India, leather and leather goods are included in the top ten lists of the productshaving maximum export.

During the year 2003-04, the leather industry earned 2.1 million American dollarsas income from export.

Mostly people from the minority and poor sections are employed in the field ofleather production. Out of the total of employed people 30 percent are women. It isestimated that 10 percent of the total supply of leather of the world is from India.

Cottage Industries in India

Glass industry : The glass industry is a very old industry of India but moderniseddevelopment of the glass industry started after the second world war only. At present inthis industry glass is being produced by modern and latest technology. At present out of56 big factories of glass 15 are modern factories which manufacture high quality ofglass goods, completely with the help of machines.

As a cottage industry it is localised mainly at Ferozabad and Belgaon. There aremore than 225 small and big factories of glass in Ferozabad, which manufacture bangles.In Atta Shikohabad, Fatehabad and Hathras also it is run as a cottage industry whereas inUttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar Tamil Nadu andOrissa it is centralised as a modern industry. The maximum number of factories in thecountry are situated in West Bengal.

India exports manufactured glass goods to Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Afghanistan,Kuwait, Iran, Greece, Saudi Arabia, Burma and Malaysia etc.

Silk Industry : From the very beginning the silk industry has been one of the majorindustries of India. At present of the total production of silk in the world 17 percent isproduced in India.

There are four major areas of pure silk production in India : (1) Kashmir Valley, (2)Eastern Karnataka and the table land (plateau) and mountainous regions of Tamil Nadu,(3) areas of Hugli in West Bengal, (4) mountainous regions of Assam.

This industry provides employment to 58 lakh people. For encouraging thisindustry "The Central Silk Board" was established in the year 1949.

Lac Industry : India is a major producer of lac. Before 1950, India was the onlycountry where lac was cleaned but today this work is also done in Thailand. It hasaffected the Indian Lac industry. Earlier 85 percent of the total world production of lac

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was produced by India which at present has been reduced to 50 percent.

In India the maximum lac is produced in the plateau of Chhota Nagpur. Out of thetotal production of lac in the world 50 percent of lac is produced in India. Apart fromthis Chhatisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Orissa, Gujarat and Mirzapurdistrict of Uttar Pradesh are major centres of production.

In the year 1969-70 the total production of lac was 5,740 tonnes in India whichincreased to 80,000 tonnes in the year 2000-01.

Major buyers of Indian lac are China, America, Russia and Britain. Apart from thesecountries, Germany, Brazil, Italy, France and Japan are also important buyers. Thisindustry provides employment to about 10,000 people of the country. 60-70 percent ofthe schedule tribe people do the work of collecting raw lac and pure shellac is extractedfrom it.

17.4 Importance of small scale and cottage industries

Small scale and cottage industries play an important role in Indian economy. Theseindustries are suited to the Indian economy. These industries can be established with lesscapital and require more human labour. In India due to a large population there is morehuman labour and also due to poverty there is less capital. For these reasons these areconsidered an important part of the Indian economy. This can be made clear by thefollowing facts:

1. Suitable for rural economy : Around 50.4 percent of the workingpopulation of India depends on agriculture, but the farmers do not get work for the wholeyear. Therefore small scale industries are important for them and suitable for the Indianeconomy.

2. Reduces unemployment : The small scale industries reduce unemploymentas they have potential of employing a large number of workers with less capitalinvestment for the same.

3. Help in reducing inequalities of incomes : The ownership of small-scale industries is distributed among lakhs of people and families as a result of thiseconomic power cannot be centralised hence it helps in equal distribution of income.

4. Development of individual art : Small-scale industries are helpful indeveloping individual art.

5. Decrease pressure of population on agriculture : A major part of thepopulation is already dependent on agriculture in India and the increasing populationincreases pressure on agriculture. If small scale industries are set up in rural areas it willreduce pressure on agriculture which will be beneficial for the country.

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6. Help in industrial decentralisation : Small scale industries help in thedecentralisation of industries in the country. Large scale industries get centralised in aparticular place due to some specific reasons but small scale industries are developedin villages and small towns.

7. Less requirement of technical knowledge : Small scale industriesrequire less technical knowledge and less capital for their establishment. They can runwith fewer trained workers. Thus they are best suited for the Indian economy.

8. Fast producing industry : Produced goods can be obtained within a shorttime after the establishment of these industries. Therefore these are called fast producingindustries. There is always a shortage of goods in India and these industries cancontribute significantly in removing this shortage.

9. Earning of foreign currency : The export of the goods manufactured bysmall scale industries is increasing day by day which helps the country in obtainingvaluable foreign currency. At present out of the total export of the country the share ofthe goods produced by small scale industries is 35 percent.

10. Less dependency on imports : We have to depend on imports fromforeign countries to establish large scale industries either for technology or for machineor raw material. With small scale industries there is no such requirement, we do not haveto import machines or techniques or raw materials. Thus it decreases dependence onimports.

11. Supplementary to large scale industries : The small scale industriescan work as supplementary industries to large scale industries for example small scaleindustries can manufacture intermediate goods which can be used by large scaleindustries to produce final goods.

12. Use of local resources : Small scale industries utilise local resources.These industries help the rural people and common man to be entrepreneurs and giveopportunities of investment of rural savings.

In India the contribution of small scale industries in the gross national product is10 percent, in gross industrial product it is 39 percent and in providing employment itis 32 percent and 35 percent in the total exports of the country.

Due to the above reasons small scale industries have been given a significant placein the industrial policies. The production of 590 commodities are reserved for smallscale industries.

17.5 Government efforts for the development of small scale industry :1. Establishment of Boards and corporations : The government has from

time to time established different boards and corporations like- The All India Board ofCottage Industries, All India Handicrafts Board, Khadi Gram Udyog Mandal, Board of

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Small Scale Industry, Coir Board, National Small Scale Corporation, Indian HandicraftsDevelopment Corporation for the development of the small scale industries.

2. Establishment of the Council of small scale industry : The small scaleindustry development corporation. Nationalised Banks, State Finance Corporation arethe members of this council and help the small scale industries.

3. Financial Assistance : Financial assistance is provided to small scaleindustries through the Reserve Bank, State Bank of India, The National Small ScaleCorporation, State finance Corporation and Cooperative Banks. Loan facilities areprovided by the National Small Scale Development Banks. State Governments alsoprovides long terms loan in their area under the Government Assistance to Industries Act.

4. Techinical Assistance : The organisation for development of small scaleindustries was established to provide technical assistance to the small scale industries.Under these services, Indians are sent to foreign countries for training and experts areinvited to India to provide training in India.

5. Exemption from taxes : Concession in taxes is provided to small scaleindustries. Taxes like production tax are not imposed on the goods produced by theseindustries, if imposition of tax becomes essential then only a nominal tax is imposed. Apartfrom the exemption in taxes concessions are provided in the transportation expenditure.

6. Facilities for selling of products : Many facilities are provided for themarketing of products of the small-scale industries. Show rooms or emporiums arebeing opened at various places by the Central and State Governments and by specificcorporations for the selling of products of small-scale industries. Along with this bigsocieties and boards are set up with the help of state governments for the sale of theproducts of small scale goods.

7. Exemption from licensing : Some goods are reserved under this, topromote small-scale industries.

8. Preference is given by the Government in their purchase : Thegovernment gives preference to the products of small scale industries in purchasinggoods for the use of its own departments and some goods are purchased exclusivelyfrom these industries.

9. Organising exhibitions : The government from time to time organisesexhibitions at different places to make people aware about the products of small scaleindustries. Apart from this, it provides assistance to those representatives of people whoorganise these exhibitions.

10. To set up research institutes : There are many research institutesestablished for research work on the products of small scale industries.

11. National Equity Fund : The Central Government has set up a fund inwhich 5 crore rupees have been provided by the Central Government and 5 crore rupees

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by the Industrial Development Bank. The Industrial Development Bank manages thesefunds, which provides loans to small scale industries in the form of soft loans upto 5thousand rupees for seed and capital but the unit should be registered in the Directorateof Industry as a small scale industry.

12. Establishment of Indian Development Bank for small scale industry: This bank was established as a co-organisation of Indian Industrial Development Bank.Its capital is rupees 450 crore rupees and its main function is to provide financialassistance to the small-scale industries. Its offices have been opened in different states.

13. Interest on delayed payments : The government has made the arrangementthat if a buyer delays the payment for the goods purchased from a small industrial unitthen he will have to pay interest on the delayed period.

14. Credit Card Scheme for small entrepreneurs : This scheme wasimplemented with the aim to make credit easily available to small businessmen, artisansand entrepreneurs in 2002-03.

15. Improvement in the loan given to small scale industries : The followingsteps were taken for the improvement in the loan given to small scale industries:

● The limit of composing loans is increased from Rupees 25 lakhs to Rs.50lakhs. The composite loan is also given for working capital along with plantand machinery.

● The expected parallel security on the loan upto Rs. 5 lakhs has been terminated.

● The Reserve Bank of India has set up a committee to monitor the flow of loansgiven to small scale industries.

16. Removal of restrictions on ready made garments : Progress oftechnology, increase in productivity, awareness towards quality, diversity of products,increase in exports and increase in marketing related policies and maximising employmentopportunities will help this sector.

17. Setting up of integrated structural Development Centres : Under thisscheme in an industrial premises the basic needs of a developed place as electricity,water, drainage system, tele communication is made available along with banks, rawmaterial, storage, sale and technology.

TermsCottage Industries : Those industries which are run completely by the members of

a family as part time or full time work.

Private Sector : That sector of production in which economic resources are

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controlled by individuals and are used with the objective ofindividual profit.

Developing country : A country having less developed economy as compared todeveloped countries.

Exercise:Choose and write the correct alternative:

1. The maximum investment limit of a small scale industrial unit is-

(i) Rupees 1 crore (ii) Rupees 5 crores

(iii) Rupees 3 crore (iv) Rupees 7 crores

2. Out of the total production of Jute in the world India produces-

(i) 25 percent (ii) 10 percent

(iii) 150 percent (iv) 35 percent

3. Which of these is concerned with information technology?

(i) Motor car (ii) Beautiful clothes

(ii) Computer (iv) Gold and Silver

Very short answer type questions-

1. To which countries does India export glass manufactured goods?

2. Which are the chief silk producing areas of India?

3. Which countries are the major buyers of lac products from India?

4. Mention the agro based industries in India.

5. What is the capacity of production of the cement factories established inIndia?

6. Which states in India are important for the production of silk?

Short answer type questions-

1. Explain the basis on which the different industries are classified in India.

2. Describe the state of the small scale industry of India.

3. Which articles are produced by the leather industry of India?

4. Explain the state of the paper industry in India.

5. Write a note on the glass industry of India.

6. Information and technology industry is a rapidly growing industry of India.Explain.

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Long answer type questions-

1. Describe the state of large scale industries of India.

2. What efforts have been undertaken by the government to promote the smallscale industries? Write.

3. State the importance of small scale and cottage industries.

4. Write short notes on -

(i) The leather Industry .

(ii) The iron and steel Industry.

(iii) The cotton Industry.

(iv) The information and technology.

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖

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18.1 Meaning of foodsecurity

18.2 Need and importance ofFood security

18.3 Major food crops ofIndia

18.4 Efforts by governmentfor food security●●●●● Promoting

Production of foodgrains

●●●●● Minimum supportprice

●●●●● Buffer stock●●●●● Public Distribution

system18.5 Food grains and

co-operatives

We Will Study �

��������

Food Security in India

18.1 Meaning of Food SecurityFood clothing and housing are the three main

requirements of life. Out of all these, availability ofnutritive food is the most important necessity of humanlife. Food security is related to the food related needs ofman. In simple words food security means availability ofnutritive food to all. Also people should have purchasingpower (money) for the arrangement and availability offood at reasonable prices. According to the WorldDevelopment Report, 1986 "Food security is theavailability of adequate food at all times for a active andhealthy life for all". According to the institute for Foodand Agriculture, "Food security ensures availability ofbasic necessary food for all, physically as well as

economically."

Thus on the basis of the above definitions foodsecurity includes the following -

● Availability of food for the whole population ofthe country.

● Availability of enough money (purchasing power) to purchase the necessary food.

● Food should be available to all at affordable prices.

● The quality of the available food should be good.

Food security generally implies that the whole population at all times should haveaccess to the minimum quantity of cereals, but due to continuous changes in adeveloping country there can be the following stages of food security :

1. Availability of adequate quantity of food grains.

2. Availability of food grains and pulses in adequate quantity.

3. Availability of milk and milk products along with food grains and pulses.

4. Availability of food grains, pulses milk and milk products, vegetables, fruitsetc.

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18.2 Need and importance of Food SecurityIn the present Indian situation food security has become very important. Our

economy is developing but the population is also increasing rapidly. So to meet theincreasing demand, food security has become necessary. The causes responsible for thiscan be divided into two parts - internal causes and external causes.

1. Internal causes - Internal causes include those which are related to the internalconditions of the country. The following factors are included in these.

●●●●● Basis of life - India is a country with a large population and the birth rate isalso very high. Therefore food security is necessary.

●●●●● Dependence on Monsoon - The majority of crops in India are dependent onthe monsoon for irrigation, but the monsoon is always uncertain and irregular.The distribution of rains is uneven too. consequently droughts and famines arecommon features of our economy. Therefore food security is necessary.

●●●●● Low Productivity - In India the productivity of food-grains per hectare islow. From this point of view also food security is necessary

●●●●● Natural Calamities - Other than the problem of the monsoon, floods,insects and pests, cold waves, soil erosion etc. also destroy the food crops insome or the other part of the country. So the problem of shortage of foodcrops arises. In the famine in Orissa of 1835, in Punjab and Madhya Pradeshin 1877 and in West Bengal in 1943, lakhs of people died of hunger. So foodsecurity is necessary to face these natural calamities.

●●●●● Continuously rising prices - The prices of food grains are increasingcontinuously which result in starvation. So food security is necessary toovercome this problem.

●●●●● Progress of the country - No country can progress without self sufficiencyin food production, and for this food security is necessary.

2. External causes - External causes include those causes which are related to therelation of other countries with our country. The following are the external causes-

●●●●● Dependence on Foreign Countries - Food is the basic need of humanbeings. So when this requirement is not fulfilled it becomes the primary dutyof the government to fulfill these needs of the people. If there is a shortageof food we have to depend on foreign countries. Whenever there is inadequatesupply of food grains in our country we have to import even if food grains arecostly or cheap, the quality is good or bad. Thus dependence on foreigncountries increases.

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●●●●● Decrease in foreign Exchange - Whenever we import things like foodgrains we have to spend our foreign exchange unnecessarily. We can meet ourdemand for food ourselves but we cannot. This results in shortage of foreignexchange to purchase very important commodities.

●●●●● Foreign Pressure - Countries which supply food grains to other countriesbecome influential and then they force them to follow their policies. Thesecountries dominate those countries which import food-grains from them, asa result they lose their freedom to decide their foreign policies. In the year1965-66 and 1966-67 due to the failure of monsoon India had to face adevastating drought and therefore wheat was imported from America. Duringthese frequent emergencies of food grains India experienced that foodsecurity is very essential to save people from starvation, to protect selfrespect, honour and sovereignty and for the development of the country.

18.3 Chief Food Crops of IndiaIndia is an agricultural country and the

chief occupation is farming. Cereals are grownin about 70 to 80 per cent of the totalagricultural land. Rice, wheat, millets and maizeare the major cereals. Today India has becomeself sufficient in the production of food grains.Different crops are grown in different seasons.So according to seasons these crops are dividedinto the following categories -

1. Kharif crops - These crops aresown in the month of July and harvested in themonth of October. They include paddy (rice)millets, maize etc.

2. Rabi Crops - These crops aresown in the month of October and harvestedeither in the end of March or in April. Theyinclude wheat, Oats, gram etc.

In India different kinds of cereals aregrown. Regarding the production of food grainsIndia stands third after China and America. Themajor food grains (cereals) of India aredescribed as follows.

Rice - Rice is the staple food of India. Itis grown in about 25 percent of the total

Chief crops of India and theircultivation regions● Paddy (Rice) - West Bengal,

Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,Chhatisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Orrisa, Pun-jab, Assam.

● Wheat - Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,Rajasthan, Maharashtra, WestBengal, Uttarakhand, Gujarat.

● Bajra - Rajasthan, Maharashtra,Tamil Nadu, Punjab, AndhraPradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat,Haryana, Karnataka, MadhyaPradesh.

● Jowar - Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra, Karnataka, AndhraPradesh.

● Maize - Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka,Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,Punjab, Bihar, Rajasthan, Gujarat.

● Gram & Pulses - MadhyaPradesh, Uttar Pradesh,Maharashtra, Punjab, Karnataka.

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cultivated area. Of the total world's production of rice, India is the second largestproducer of rice in the world. India accounts for 11.4 per cent of the world production.

Important rice growing states in India are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Chhattisgarh and Assam.The production of rice is increasing continuously. In the field of production of rice, theuse of high yielding variety of seeds and chemical fertilizers has shown a huge rise inits production. At present India has become not only self-sufficient in the production ofrice but has also started to export it.

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Wheat - In the production of cereals in India the rank of wheat is second after rice.As regards production of wheat India's rank is third after China and the United States ofAmerica and as regards area of production India's rank is fifth in the world. In India twokinds of wheat are grown -

(a) Walgair wheat - It is shining, healthy (well-sapped) soft and white in colour.Generally it is called wheat of bread.

(b) Mikrani wheat - It is red in colour small in size and hard.

The major wheat growing states of the country are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. India is self dependent in the productionof wheat. Though in the current year India is importing wheat due to lack of accumulatedstock, 5 lacks tonnes of wheat has been imported.

Coarse grain

Sorghum (jowar) bajra (pearl millet) and maize are included in coarse grains.

Sorghum (Jowar) - In India Jowar has been grown from ancient times. It is usedas fodder for cattle and as food for human beings. In India it is food of the poor. Inforeign countries it is used to prepare starch and glucose. In northern India it is a kharifcrop but in southern India it is a crop of kharif and rabi both. About 87 per cent of thetotal production of Jowar (sorghum) in the country is produced in Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Bajra - It is a kharif crop in northern India. In southern India it is a crop of rabiand kharif both. It is used as fodder for cattle. India is the largest producer of Bajra inthe world. In India the main Bajra producing states are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharastra,Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab. Of the totalproduction of bajra in the country 96 per cent is grown here.

Maize - Maize is the crop of the plains and mountainous regions. It is used asfodder for cattle and as food to eat. Man uses its different varieties for food products.In foreign countries starch and glucose are prepared from this. In India it is grown innearby all states but mainly it is grown in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,Rajasthan, Gujarat and Karnataka.

18.4 Efforts of the Government for food securityFood security depends upon - Public Distribution System, alertness of government

and the measures taken in a situation of crisis.

Food security system has been developed in India to make food grains available atreasonable prices to poor and other people during periods of food crisis arising due tosome reason or other or due to natural calamities. The important components of thissystem are as follows -

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1. Efforts to increase food grains - For food security it is important that theproduction of food grains should be enough in quantity. In this the contribution of thegreen revolution is quite important, Under the Green Revolution mechanization ofagriculture, use of high yielding hybrid variety of seeds, fertilizers and insecticides andirrigation facilities were extended. Also due to promotion of consolidation of landholdings, abolishing of mediators, today the country has become self sufficient in thefield of food grains. The progress of food grains in India can be explained on the basisof the following table.

2. Minimum Support Price - The prices of agricultural products are veryflexible, at the time of harvesting the supply increases, due to which there is enoughdecrease in price. As prices at this time go down below the fixed limit the producer findsit difficult to get the cost of their products. Therefore the government declares aminimum support price for agricultural products, under which when market price of foodgrains becomes less than its support price, the government starts purchasing food grainson self declared support price. Due to this farmers get inspired to produce more andmore and the government procures food grains for "Buffer Stocks."

3. Buffer Stock - If the production of food grains is less, then to face such crisisof shortage and to distribute them through the Public Distribution System, the stock offood grains kept by the government is known as Buffer Stock. A Buffer Stock is the stockof food grains, namely wheat and rice procured by the government through FoodCorporation of India (FCI). The FCI purchases wheat and rice from farmers in stateswhere there is surplus production. The farmers are paid a pre-announced price for theircrop. This price is called a "Minimum Support Price". The government declares theseprices before the sowing season to provide incentives to farmers for raising productionof these crops. These food grains are stored in large granaries. It helps in resolving theproblem of shortage of food grains during emergencies.

4. The Public Distribution System - By Public Distribution System is meant thatsystem in which different consumer goods are sold in sufficient quantity at fixed pricesto the consumers, specially to the poorsections of society. In this system differentgoods (wheat, rice, sugar, imported edibleoil, coal and kerosene oil etc.) are soldthrough ration shops or cooperative consumerstores. The profit rate for these sellers arefixed and they have to sell the goods to theration card holders at a fixed price and infixed quantities. There are three kinds of ration cards - B.P.L. Card, A.P.L. Card andAntyodya Cards.

Parts of Public Distribution System

The Public Distribution System includesfair price shops, Fair Price Shops forselling cloth, soft coke depot, Supermarkets and Kerosene shops.

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The Public Distribution System is regulated by the central and the state governmenttogether. The central government allots food grains and other commodities to states anddetermines prices also. The state has the right to add transportation charge etc. to theprices fixed by the CentralGovernment. The transportation,collection, distribution and inspectionof these goods processed under thissystem is done by the stategovernment. The state governmentcan include those goods also in PublicDistribution System which it canpurchase if required.

In India the distribution of food grains is increasing continuously.

It is clear from the above table that the Public Distribution System plays animportant role in providing food grains to people.

Revamped Public Distribution System - In January 1992, the Public DistributionSystem was amended and a revised Public Distribution System was introduced to supplyessential goods to consumers of remote areas, schedule tribes, backward classes,drought affected and mountainous areas of the country. Its characteristics are as follows-

● Preference is given to the people of drought affected areas, desert areas,mountainous area and slums in urban areas.

● It is aimed at poviding more quantity of food at comparatively low prices.Six other chief essential commodities like tea, soap, pulse, iodised salt arealso included in it.

● "Rojgar Aswasan Plan" has been started in the development blocks includedunder this plan, in which 100 days employment can be provided to 18-60year old unskilled labour, so that they are able to earn and purchase foodgrains through revamped public distribution system.

Targeted Public Distribution System :

In 1997 the Public Distribution System was introduced to ensure the availablity ofa minimum quantity of food grains to families living below the poverty line. In thissystem food grains are provided to the poor on special low prices by issuing them onration cards. This is the largest food security plan of the world. In this system 35 kg. offood grains per month per family are provided from 1st April 2006. In the same wayunder the "Antyodya Anna Yojna" 25 kg. of wheat at Rs. 2/- per kg. & rice at Rs. 3/- perkg. is being provided to very poor families through the public distribution system.

Ration Cards

● BPL cards for people below poverty line.

● APL cards for people above poverty line.

● Antyodaya Cards for the poorest of the poor.

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Under this system a differentialprice system was adopted includingpeople below the poverty line (BPL) andalso for people above the poverty line(APL) in which different issue prices ofwheat and rice were fixed (see table)

Other than this the government isproviding food security through mid daymeals for the students studying in theschool 'Antyodya Aann Yogna', 'Kaam keBadle Anaj Yogna' and 'United StateDevelopment Programme' etc. schemes.

18.5 Food Security and Co-operatives :A co-operative is a form of voluntary orgainsation of people which works for

collective interest on the basis of quality, self help and domestic system. Under thissystem all those works which cannot be done by the financially weak people individuallyare easily done.

The main objective of a cooperative is to work together with mutual cooperationwithout the feeling of exploitation of each other.

In India the role of cooperatives is very important in providing food security. Thiswork is done by the consumer cooperative societies through ration shops for the sale offood grains for the poor. In India there are different systems of consumer cooperativesat national, state, district & village levels. Out of these National Consumers' Cooperative(Federation) Ltd. is an oganisation at National level. State Cooperative Consumers'Organisation is affiliated to this forum (federation). There are 794 consumer cooperativestores at the central level (Wholesale) and 24,078 stores at the primay level. In ruralareas nearly 44,418 village level primary agricultural credit societies are distributingessential goods along with their ordinary business. To fulfill the needs of consumers,consumer cooperative societies are running nearly 37,226 retail selling centres in urban& semi urban areas.

The government started a scheme named 'Sarvpiya' in July 2000. Under this plansome selected distribution system at selling centres of state consumers cooperativeFederation, state civil supply cooperative and consumers' cooperative societies of stategovernment distributes the procured cereals from food corporation of India to the poorsections of society through ration shops. Sugar, cereals, kerosene etc. are distributed tothe ration card holders through ration shops which are also known as 'Fair Price Shops'.Any family with a ration card can buy stipulated amounts of these items, every month

Central Issue Price in thePublic Distribution System

Distribution Issue price per kg. (Rs.)

Wheat

● Below poverty line 4.15

● Above poverty line 6.10

Rice

● Below poverty line 5.65

● Above poverty line 8.30

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from a nearby ration shop. At these shops all the items are sold at a price lower than themarket price. Today there are about 4.6 lakh ration shops in the counrty.

Terms

Subsidy (Grant) : Subsidy is the payment which the Government makes to theproducer to compensate for the market price.

Buffer Stock : Reserve stock of food grains to meet emergency situations.

Green Revolution : At term that is given to the procedure of improvement of techniqueof agricultural production to increase agricultural production.

Support Price : Declaration of support price of agricultural crops means to give theguarantee of a minimum price to farmers for their crops.

EXERCISESChoose and write the correct alternative :

1. Kharif crop is -(i) Wheat (ii) Gram(iii) Paddy (iv) Oat

2. A part of the Public Distribution System is -(i) Shoe shop (ii) Gold & Silver shop(iii) Ration shop (iv) Grocery shop

3. Targeted public distribution is related to -(i) Women (ii) Gents(iii) People living below the poverty line (iv) none of these

4. How much cereal is given under Antyodya Anna Yojna?(i) 5 kg. (ii) 10 kg.(iii) 15 kg. (iv) 25 kg.

Very short answer type questions :

1. Write the names of coarse cereals.

2. In which years did India face famine?

3. What is Rojgar Ashwasan Yojna?

4. What is meant by minimum support price?

5. Write the names of any two schemes launched for food security.

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Short answer type questions :

1. What are the main factors of food security? Write about them.

2. What is Buffer Stock? Explain.

3. Explain Targeted public distribution system?

4. What is revamped public distribution system? Explain.

5. What is the role of cooperatives in food security? Explain.

6. Differentiate between Kharif & Rabi crops.

Long answer type questions :

1. What are the major cereals of India? Describe.

2. What is food security and why is it necessary? Explain

3. How does the government provide food security to the poor? Explain.

4. What steps has the government taken to increase food grains?

5. What is public distribution system and what are its main constituents? Describe.

6. How is the public distribution system conducted? Describe.

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