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BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS: ETHICALPRACTICES ASSOCIATED WITH BUDDHASAND BODHISATTVASNh ng c h nh t ng ng v i ch Ph t và ch B -tát đữ ứ ạ ươ ứ ớ ư ậ ư ồBuddhas and bodhisattvas represent exalted images of ethical

perfection in Buddhism. In the midst of the kaleidoscopiccomplexity of Buddhist ethical thought and practice, the

presence of buddhas and bodhisattvas serve as a universalfocal point across traditions.

Chư Phật và chư Bồ-tát tượng trưng cho sự toàn thiện về mặt đạo đức trong Phật giáo. Gi ! sđ!n "#n $hức tạ$ c%! tư tư&ng và thực hành' sự hiện (iện c%! chư Phật Bồ-tát c) v!i tr* như m+ti, đi m $h/ 0 át " 1,n s 2t 0 ! các tr 1ền th2ng.Buddhist ethics conceives of buddhas and bodhisattvaswithin a hierarchy of distinct categories of ethical actors.

These categories are permeable and this hierarchy is notfixed; as ethical transformation occurs, over lifetimes or insome rare cases in a single lifetime, an actor’s position is elevated

or potentially deescalated! in this ideational orderingof the ethical universe. It is a general truth that Buddhist traditionshighly value the difference between ethical actors."hile all beings have a future potential for enlightenment#and in some traditions an inherent capacity for buddhahood#the potential to live in the company of those withgreater capacities than oneself#epitomi$ed in the figure of

the kalya¯n %amitra , or beautiful friend#is a primary conditionenabling ethical transformation.

3ạo đức h4c Phật giáo 0 !n niệm các đức Phật và Bồ-tát th#o m+t hệ th2ngcác $hạm tr5 ri,ng 6iệt c%! các hành vi đạo đức. 7h ng $hạm tr5 nà1 c) t8nh th9m th: và hệ th2ng :1 ;h<ng c2đ=nh> ;hi nh ng 6i?n ch 1 n đạo đức "@1 r!' tr@i 0 ! nhiề đAi hoặc m+t s2 trưAng hợ$ chđAi' v= tr8 c%! v= hành gi@ được th ng ho! Dhoặc c) th 6= đ4! EạcF trong trật tự $hạm vi đđược 0 !n niệm :1. C) m+t sự thật $h/ 6i?n đ) Eà các tr 1ền th2ng Phật giáo r:t "#m tr4ng sự;hác nh! gi ! các v= hành gi@. rong ;hi t:t c@ chHng s!nh đề c) ;h@ n ng giác ng+ trongtưIng E!i J và trong m+t s2 6+ $hái chHng c*n tiềm 9n c@ ;h@ n ng thành tự Phật 0 @ - thKn ng được s2ng ch ng vLi nh ng v= thành tự c!o hIn mKnh J được 6i trưng 0 ! hKnh @nhthiện hữu (Kalyā amitra)ṇ Eà m+t điề ;iện ch8nh 1? giH$ thực hiện sự ch 1 n h)! đạo đức DtMm

EinhF. The fluidity in this hierarchy is expressed in many ways,such as the debates over which category of being represents

the highest ideal of ethical perfection% a buddha or a bodhisattva.&aha'ya'na traditions have sometimes been characteri$ed

and critici$ed! for elevating bodhisattvas over buddhas

because bodhisattvas have postponed their full enlightenmentfor the sake of others, while the buddhas have entered into

nirva¯n %a before all beings have been freed from sam %sa¯ra."hereas the enlightened powers of the (elestial Bodhisattvasmay be difficult to distinguish from buddhas, ordinary

bodhisattvas #that is, bodhisattvas at lower stages bhu¯mis ! of



the path#may be imperfect in many regards because theirown transformations are still taking place.

The conceptions of buddhas and bodhisattvas in Buddhistethical practices are shaped to a significant degree bythe Buddhists who stand in relationship to these enlightened

beings. buddhas and bodhisattvas are the heroes of Buddhisttraditions; their extraordinary acts of compassion mitigatesuffering in the world. They are also role models for escaping

the suffering of sam %sa¯ra for oneself and for others. The intercession

of buddhas and bodhisattvas is sought because of boththeir power as heroes and their accessibility as role models.BUDDHAS AND B ODHISATTVAS AS MORAL HEROES. The

originating moment of the bodhisattva path#the arising of B)**+ - * B/*+I- TT0 -% 1T+I( 2 34 (TI(1- !"#1 (5(2/31*I /6 412I7I/ , -1(/ * 1*ITI/

bodhicitta #is nothing short of heroic. The aspiration for enlightenmentis a vow to free all beings from suffering; theenormity of this commitment is unparalleled#the weight of the world’s suffering rests upon the bodhisattva’s shoulders.

The power of this vow is captured by -8a'ntideva, an Indianmonk believed to have lived in the seventh and eighth centuries

(1 . In his exposition of the bodhisattva path#the famous

Bodhicarya¯vata¯ra #he writes% 9 s long as space abides and aslong as the world abides, so long may I abide, destroying thesuffering of the world: (rosby -kilton, <==>%<?@!. &aking

the vow is an ethical act that recreates a person as a bodhisattvaand sets the ethical course they will follow. "hile theability to actuali$e this commitment is far in the future#indeed, potentially numerous lifetimes in the future#the intention

to reali$e this goal establishes the bodhisattva as a particularand extraordinary category of ethical actor. The obligations

and challenges of this bodhisattva identity can at firstevoke fear and selfAdoubt as well as determination, as-8

a'ntideva so evocatively articulates. Buddhas and bodhisattvasserve as both inspiration and protection for bodhisattvasundergoing the process of ethical transformation as theymove through the stages of the path.H$%&ic 'cti&n( &) *+,,h'( 'n, bodhisattvas. Buddhas

and (elestial Bodhisattvas actuali$e the power of theirvows through ethical actions that appear nothing short of

miraculous. The heroics of buddhas and bodhisattvas also layin the miraculous, superhuman ualities of their actions. sfully enlightened beings, buddhas are perfectly ethical; thus

ethics and soteriology are significantly intertwined. mongthe perfections pa¯ramita¯s ! cultivated on the bodhisattva



path is a specific virtue, ´sila¯, often translated as morality. 5et

all the pa¯ramita¯s , including vigor v¯ırya !, meditation

dhya¯na !, and wisdom prajña¯ ! are resources for the ethicallife.Buddhas’ enlightened status enables them to act with

absolute morality. This is modeled in some traditions, suchas (han or Cen, as perfect responsiveness#an enlightenedbeing instantaneously responds exactly as a situation demands.

These actions, however, may not always be understoodby those without an enlightened perspective. ctions

by buddhas and bodhisattvas can actually appear to be contraryto moral prescriptions and ethical values. famous exampleof this is the parable told by the buddha in the

Saddharmapun %d%

ar¯ıka , Lotus Su¯tra , in which a rich man liesto his children in order to get them out of a burning house.+is actions are viewed not as a deception, but as upa¯ya , askillful means to most effectively teach the *harma to beingsin its most effective form.

The extraordinary uality of a buddha’s or bodhisattva’sactions raises the uestion of whether imitation is desirable

or possible. Take for example the extraordinary act of da¯na

giving! in the buddha’s penultimate lifetime as a bodhisattva,when he was born as the prince 0essantara. +e gives away

not only his kingdom’s auspicious white elephant, but alsohis two children and his wife. *ifferent versions of the 0essantara

ja¯taka emphasi$e the outrageousness of these actions,as well as the high stakes for everyone involved#his childrenbeg to be released from bondage from the cruel, torturousBrahmin, his wife writhes in physical and psychic agonyupon discovering the loss of her children, and even 0essantarais tormented by the effects of his boundless generosity.0essantara’s actions take place, from this perspective, ona normal moral stage. +is actions, regardless of intent or motivation

for the future attainment of buddhahood, causepain. In fact, as Buddhist commentators from a variety of time periods have argued, his actions are not un uestionably

ethical. The bodhisattva’s actions are so different in degreefrom the norm of ethical practices so as to be a different kindof ethical action altogether. Because of this, the story is notmeant to inspire imitation, but rather devotion. "hile the0essantara story may be a source of inspiration for the ethicallife, the actions it describes must be translated into a humanmorality. -o, whereas it is not moral for a person to give away

a child or a spouse in every circumstance, it is a valid moralchoice, for instance, to give one’s children to the san˙ ha .H$%&ic 'cti&n( in( i%ing i it'ti&n. In certain instances



extraordinary Buddhists have directly imitated the

heroic actions of buddhas and bodhisattvas . powerful examplecan be found in the selfAimmolation of 0ietnamesemonks during the 0ietnam "ar#a dramatic demonstrationof both commitment to Buddhist tradition and to the power

of Buddhist ethical practices as a form of protest. s "illiam2a6leur has argued, this modernAday act had precedence inthe story of the Bodhisattva BhaisaDyaguru, in the

Saddharmapun %d%ar¯ıka , who devotedly lights himself on fireas offering to the buddhas. The heroics in both cases#historical and textual#draw stark distinctions between theethical agents capable of such extraordinary acts, and themore ordinary beings, who, although perhaps awed, mightalso have confused these actions different not only in kindbut also in degree from the standards for Buddhist ethical

life.H$%&ic 'cti&n( in( i%ing ,$v&ti&n. *evotion inspired

by the heroics of buddhas and bodhisattvas alike is an importantresource for ethical cultivation. Buddhist traditionsvalue celebrating the good deeds of others as beneficial andefficacious for generating merit, as well as engendering gratitude

towards buddhas and bodhisattvas. The descriptions of

the celebratory responses to the heroics of buddhas and bodhisattvasare among the most beautiful narrations in Buddhistliterature, in which a whole universe#animals, humans,

gods and goddesses, as well as the material world#responds with cheers of adulation, showers of flowers, andskies filled with rainbows. 2otus flowers arise from the earthto accept the tiny foot of the newborn baby who strides ineach direction at his birth announcing his destiny to becomethe buddha. Thus, Buddhist traditions posit a world that isnot ethically neutral; it is a moral world in which people live.It would be a mistake to assume that devotion is transcendedat a certain stage of ethical or spiritual development.

!"/ B)**+ - * B/*+I- TT0 -% 1T+I( 2 34 (TI(1-

1 (5(2/31*I /6 412I7I/ , -1(/ * 1*ITI/&any Buddhist traditions emphasi$e that the experience of enlightenment should create a heightened sense of gratitude

towards the buddhas. In his autobiography, !tsumad" usa ,+akuin, a seventeenth century 4in$ai Cen monk, describeshis commitment to teaching other monks as a way to repaythe debt he felt he owed to the buddhas and his lineage patriarch.&any other examples from various Buddhist traditionsemphasi$e the gratitude enlightened beings feel as they reflectupon the care they received at every stage of their own

process of transformation. This gratitude necessitates a reciprocaldevotion to caring for others.BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS AS ETHICAL ROLE MODELS.



*evotion for buddhas and bodhisattvas, inspired by theirsuperAhuman achievements, is not antithetical to the desireto form oneself in their image. s ethical role models, buddhas

and bodhisattvas are paradigms of virtues#their pathsto enlightenment become the templates for ethical transformation.

It is important to ask what people would have been likelyto view the buddhas and bodhisattvas as role models fortheir own practices and goals. The bodhisattva path, systemati$edin different forms by Buddhist traditions, is the mostbasic model for attaining the achievements of buddhas and

bodhisattvas. 1ach stage of the path is a form of ethical practice.

The arising of bodhicitta , the practice of the perfectionsand the movement through stages of the path, entail commitments,obligations, and increasing resources for ethicallife. general assumption in scholarship#informed to a significant

degree by rhetoric in &aha'ya'na su'tras#posits anextreme contrast between the exclusivity of the +'Enaya'na

conception of the bodhisattvas path with the &aha'ya'na idealof a universal path open to all beings. Indeed, the polemic

term #¯ınaya¯na lesser vehicle! directly represents the&aha'ya'na criti ue that these early Buddhist traditions#the

Thera'vada being the only one now extant among them#

settled for the less ethically robust figure of the arhant , abeing, according to the &aha'ya'na critics, who attains enlightenmentfor his or her own benefit alone.

Textual evidence suggests a historical development of

the bodhisattva ideal and path in both &aha'ya'na and Therava'din traditions. 4ecent studies by scholars such as3aul +arrison and Fan attier argue that the &aha'ya'naideals of a universal path were not present in early formulationsof the &aha'ya'na in the first centuries of the (ommon

1ra. In early su'tras the bodhisattva ideal and the practitionerswho modeled themselves after it were an exclusive minorityof male monastic practitioners and even fewer male householders.If the &aha'ya'na universal imperative of buddhahoodbroadened in conception and practice over time, theseideals were not absent from Therava'din traditions either.

Therava'din traditions developed a more inclusive category

of the bodhisatta the 3ali form of the -anskrit word 9 bodhisattva :!in the medieval period, expanding narrative traditions

to include a fuller accounting of the bodhisatta path of 7autama as well as a more populous pantheon of additional

bodhisatta who will become buddhas following the next buddha,

&etteyya. "hile Therava'din descriptions of bodhisattas

remained primarily hagiographical, and primarily althoughnot exclusively! tied to the ja¯taka lifetimes of 7otama, some



systematic formulations of a bodhisatta path did emerge inthe Therava'din commentarial and postAcommentarial literature.Inscriptions and colophons from different parts of the

Therava'din world suggest that practices paralleled the broadeningof textual representations as some adherents conceived

of their own future lifetimes, if not their present ones, as embarkingupon the bodhisattva path.M&,$0( )&% $thic'0 t%'n()&% 'ti&n. 6ascinating temporal

issues are raised when we consider buddhas and bodhisattvasas ethical role models. 6rom one perspective these figuresoffer an inspiring vision of the ethical being they aspireto become in the future, often a future lifetime, as it seemsimpossible for many Buddhists to attain this level of perfectionin their present conditions. This futureAorientation is

powerfully at play in the bestowal of a prediction, vya¯karan %a ,

that is a condition of buddhahood for every bodhisattva. Inorder to become a buddha, a bodhisattva must first receivea prediction of their future buddhahood directly from anotherbuddha. In this prediction a buddha describes the details

of the bodhisattva’s future biography when buddhahood willfinally be attained. The buddha significantly models this future

to be fulfilled by the bodhisattva. The prediction powerfullyshapes the present as well as the faceAtoAface encounter

between buddha and bodhisattva , narrated for example in the

3ali Buddhavam %sa , gives the bodhisatta a vision of the perfectbeing he will become in the future.

The bridging of present reality with future ideals is accomplishedin a variety of practices directed at generatingand experiencing the virtues and powers of enlightened beings.

Through the recitation of the buddha’s names in the

practice of buddha¯nusmr % ti remembrance of the buddha! theualities of the buddha described in these honorific titles

begin to be embodied by the practitioner. The 0aDraya'napractice of deity yoga leads the meditator to an experience

of identification with a buddha during the course of the visuali$ation.s Buddhist traditions have changed in different times

and places so too have the imaginations of how to best follow

the ethical imperatives for bodhisattvas and buddhas. In thepostAmodern, global Buddhist world, the imitation of classicalideals has continued. 6or example, throughout the

Therava'dan world ordination ceremonies include a reenactmentof the buddha’s departure from his palace as hebegan his sixAyear struggle for enlightenment. Imitation hasalso given way to adaptation as Buddhists reAimagine what

actions best emulate the compassion of buddhas and bodhisattvas. The 1ngaged Buddhist movement, led by figures likethe 0ietnamese monk Thich hat +anh, image a universal



practice of the bodhisattva path. 1ngaged Buddhism advocatesa broad range of social conscious living such as participationin peace rallies, prison advocacy, and even recycling

as bodhisattva acts.B)**+ - * B/*+I- TT0 -% 1T+I( 2 34 (TI(1- !"1

1 (5(2/31*I /6 412I7I/ , -1(/ * 1*ITI/THE INTERCESSION O2 BUDDHAS AND B ODHISATTVAS . s

moral heroes and ethical role models, buddhas and bodhisattvasintercede in the lives of others in order to extinguish sufferingin its endless varieties and support individuals andcommunities in their ethical practices. cts of intercession

illuminate the heroic depths of buddhas’ and bodhisattvas ’compassion#a compassion that is active and effective. ImportantBuddhist conceptions of ethical agency underlie the

many different ways buddhas and bodhisattvas contribute to

the ethical lives of others. 6or the devotee, the petition to abuddha or bodhisattva and the confidence in their responseunderlies two basic conceptions of Buddhist ethics% first, thatwhile existence is governed by the first noble truth of theeverApresent reality of suffering, this suffering can be alleviated

by the compassionate intervention of buddhas and bodhisattvas ;and following directly from this, Buddhist ethics demandsthat the ethical person conceive of their dependenceon others for their own wellAbeing. (ommunal agency is prioriti$edover autonomy. Beings depend upon the aid of othersin order to reach the heights of ethical perfection as buddhasand bodhisattvas #a perfection that is desired in orderto more effectively aid others in turn.

"hile every bodhisattva makes a generali$ed vow to alleviatesuffering, buddhas and (elestial Bodhisattvas are differentiatedby their individuali$ed vows to address suffering

with particular forms of compassion. s a bodhisattva,mita'bha Buddha, for example, vowed to become Buddha

of Infinite 2ight, of Infinite 2ife, and to create a 3ure 2and,-ukha'vat'E, where all beings who said his name would be reborn.In his or her variety of regional, gendered and iconographicforms, the (elestial Bodhisattva valokite8svara is thehero among heroes who saves beings in the sam% sa'ric world

from suffering in whatever form it takes. This bodhisattva’sinterventions, such as granting a child to the infertile, or rescuingthe shipwrecked from certain death, display the everready

responsiveness of the bodhisattva to the particularitiesof suffering. These examples of intercession are responses topetitions for aid made by engaging in devotional activities

such as reciting a mantra or a su'tra, or leaving offerings ata bodhisattva shrine. The methods for invoking a buddha’s



or bodhisattva’s aid is in some cases precisely defined, as in

the Bhais %ajya uru su¯tras #the su'tras of the &edicine Buddha#that instruct the devotee how to rid oneself of physicalillness.

decidedly different conception of the unAre uested intervention

of a buddha or bodhisattva is seen as a responseto the ethical achievements of particular actors. In these instances,

a buddha or bodhisattva intervenes to support andencourage the dedicated practitioner striving for ethical fulfillment.In Fapan, for example, the Bodhisattva Fi$o', oftendisguised as a young monk, appears to support the beneficialactivities of those desiring to follow an ethical path, such asa monk on austere retreat or a devotee leaving offerings ata shrine. In these instances, it is precisely in response to the

already present ethical ualities that the bodhisattva intervenes

in order to promote the success of further ethical development. Fi$o'’s concealed identity in these narratives emphasi$esboth the worthiness of the person receiving his aid, as

well as the intent of the bodhisattva to encourage the successof that person, rather than to primarily draw attention to the

bodhisattva’s power and virtues.B+,,h'( 'n, bodhisattvas '( $thic'0 %$)+g$(. Buddhas

and bodhisattvas may also directly intercede in momentsof crisis in order to prevent a being from causing physical andkarmic harm to themselves or others. In many narratives theyare imagined as the final refuge for beings who have foundno other resources to redress their suffering. The concept of

a buddha, and by extension, a bodhisattva , as one of three4efuges has a heightened ethical significance in stories,found in every Buddhist tradition, which describe the precise

ways buddhas and bodhisattva prevent harm and bring relief. There are countless examples of these forms of intercession.6or example, in the famous story of nGgulima'la, a moralyoung man is commanded by his teacher to make him anecklace out of <,HHH fingers. Fust as he is about to completehis necklace by murdering his own mother, the Buddha miraculouslyintervenes, preventing the heinous sin of matricideand setting nGgulima'la on an ethical course ultimatelyending in enlightenment.&oral challenges directly confronting ethical self understandingcan find a resolution through the intervention of

buddhas and bodhisattvas , who can reAestablish conceptionsof integrity for ethical actors. 3eople who perceive themselvesas harming others can, through a separate set of actions directed

towards a buddha or bodhisattva , either redress theparticular wrong committed or establish their moral worthiness.3ractices from various traditions and time periods show



how recourse to interaction with buddhas and bodhisattvasprovides a redemptive space for those who have faced andperceived failure in an ethical crisis. /ne might think of thedevotional programs of the legendary ing soka as, in part,a response to the warfare of his early reign; or the trials of

the Tibetan yogi, &ilarepa#designed by his teacher &arpa,a living buddha#to cleanse the karma produced in his murderousyouth; or the modern Fapanese practices of mi$ukokuyo', where devotional offerings are made to the Bodhisattva

Fi$o'#the caretaker of dead children#by those who havehad an abortion. These forms of intervention for redressingor establishing ethical identity are inherently complex religiousAsocial phenomena, as illuminated by this final examplewhere gender, economic, and political factors#as well asethical ones#are at play.

The ethical formulation of dependency arguably reachesits fullest form in the thinking of -hinran, the twelfthA andthirteenthAcentury founder of Fo'do -hinshu'. In his teachings,the only possibility for ethical action is to give oneself over completely to the /ther power of mida Buddha, who,as the Bodhisattva *harmakara, vowed to end the sufferingof all beings and to bring all who say his name to enlightenmentthrough rebirth in his 3ure 2and, -ukha'vat'E. It is the

!"3 B)**+ - * B/*+I- TT0 -% 1T+I( 2 34 (TI(1-1 (5(2/31*I /6 412I7I/ , -1(/ * 1*ITI/

recognition of one’s own complete inability to act ethicallythat enables the compassion of mida to transform one intoan ethical actor. ccording to -hinran’s thought, the devoteeneither inspires nor invokes mida’s compassion; rather,

mida is the sole agent in bringing about the ethical formationof his devotees. "ithout mida, -hinran estimated, hewas completely without options for leading an ethical life.

This emphasis on the power of a buddha to shape theethical life of beings is not exclusive to 3ure 2and traditions."hile not articulated with the same direct emphasis as with-hinran, there is, in the Therava'din traditions, for example,

the conception that the presence of a buddha#throughphysical proximity in his lifetime or through his relics after

his parinibba¯na #can change people’s destinies. +agiographicalaccounts of the buddha’s teaching career are filledwith stories of the multitudes of people who uickly attainedarahatship upon receiving the *harma from the Buddha.In addition to these generali$ed patterns, narratives alsodepict personali$ed encounters with the Buddha 7autama.

The evocative story of 3atta'ca'ra, recorded in the 3ali

$h"r¯ı ¯ıtha¯ , describes how the Buddha’s intercession changesthe ethical destiny of a woman whose grief at the loss of herentire family renders her insane, wandering naked as an outcast



from society. The Buddha becomes literally her last refuge;he is the only one who clearly perceives her naked ravingsas an exposure of suffering. The encounter brings sanity,

a new family in the san˙ ha , and ultimately, enlightenment.ttaining enlightenment is not the ultimate goal for Buddhist

ethical life; rather, it is to continue to aid others, boththrough acts of heroic intervention and, like 3atta'ca'ra, byserving as an inspiring role model for others.SEE ALSO Buddha; Buddhism, articles on Buddhism in

Fapan and Buddhism in Tibet; Buddhism, -chools of, articleon Tibetan and &ongolian Buddhism; (elestial Buddhasand Bodhisattvas.

BIBLIO4RAPH5

6or a translation and useful introduction to -antideva’s

Bodhicarya¯vata¯ra , see ate (rosby and ndrew -kilton, Bodhicaryavatara

/xford, <==>!. n engaging introduction tothe 3ure 2and traditions of -hin Buddhism and -hinran’steachings on issues of ethical agency can be found in Taitetsu

)nno’s %iv"r o& 'ir", %iv"r o& (at"r ew 5ork, <==J!.

mong the many studies of the bodhisattva path, 3aul +arvey’s

)n !ntroduction to Buddhist *thics (ambridge, ). .,KHHH! provides a useful overview of ethical conceptions of

buddhas, bodhisattvas and the bodhisattva path. There areseveral excellent introductions to Buddhism containing insightfulchapters on conceptions and roles of buddhas and

bodhisattvas in Buddhist traditions, such as *onald -.

2ope$’s $h" Story o& Buddhism -an 6rancisco, KHHH!. 6or abrief but helpful discussion of practices of selfAimmolation

practiced, see "illiam 4. 2afluer’s Buddhism )pper -addle4iver, .F., <=JJ!. 6or historical studies of early &aha'ya'na

movements and bodhisattva practices see 3aul +arrison,9"ho 7ets to 4ide on the 7reat 0ehicleL -elf Image and

Identity among the 6ollowers of the 1arly &aha'ya'na,: +ournal

o& th" !nt"rnational )ssociation o& Buddhist Studi"s <H, no.

<% MNOJ=. -ee also Fan attier’s ) '" -ood "n/ $h" Bodhisattva

0ath accordin to th" !n1uiry o& 2 ra +onolulu,

+awai’i, KHH@!.6 AREN DERRIS 78!!19

buddhas and bodhisattvas_r

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