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1 Less Maintenance cost 1 To high responsi!ility To reduce the "atigue o" workers To rethe work load To increase the e#ciency o" the $ehicle To reduce man power To achie

high sa"ety 1 CH%&TE'(1 1 )*T'+DUCT)+* %utomation can !e achie$ed through comphydraulics, hydraulics, ro!otics,etc, o" these sources, hydraulics "orm an attracti$e med%utomation plays animportant role in automo!ile *owadays almost all the automo!ile $is !eingatomi-ed in order to product the human !eing The automo!ile $ehicle is !eingatomi-ed"or the "ollowing reasons.

/ / CH%&TE'(/ / L)TE'%TU'E SU'0E/1 &*EUM%T)CS. The word 2pneuma3 comes "rom 4and means !reather wind The wordpneumatics is the study o" air mo$ement and itsphenomena is deri$ed "rom the wordpneuma Today pneumatics is mainly understood tomeans the application o" air as aworking medium in industry especially the dri$ing andcontrolling o" machines ande5uipment &neumatics has "or some considera!le time !etwused "or carrying out thesimplest mechanical tasks in more recent times has played a mimportant role in thede$elopment o" pneumatic technology "or automation &neumatic syoperate on a supply o" compressed air which must !e madea$aila!le in su#cient 5uantitat a pressure to suit the capacity o" the system 6henthe pneumatic system is !eing ado"or the 7rst time, howe$er it wills indeed thenecessary to deal with the 5uestion o" compair supply The key part o" any "acility "or supply o" compressed air is !y meansusingreciprocating compressor % compressor is a machine that takes in air, gas at acertainpressure and deli$ered the air at a high pressure Compressor capacity is the actu5uantity o" air compressed and deli$ered and the$olume e8pressed is that o" the air at inconditions namely at atmosphere pressureand normal am!ient temperature Thecompressi!ility o" the air was 7rst in$estigated !y 'o!ert 9oyle in 1:;/ andthat "ound th

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product o" pressure and $olume o" a particular 5uantity o" gas The usual written as &0 <&?0? < &/0/ /

@ @ )n this e5uation the pressure is the a!solute pressured which "or "ree is a!out 1AB&si o" courage capa!le o" maintaining a column o" mercury, nearly @ inches highin an ordin!arometer %ny gas can !e used in pneumatic system !ut air is the mostlyused system ndays// SELECT)+* +F &*EUM%T)CS. Mechani-ation is !roadly de7ned as the replaceme

manual eort !ymechanical power &neumatic is an attracti$e medium "or low costmechani-ationparticularly "or se5uential =or> repetiti$e operations Many "actories and palreadyha$e a compressed air system, which is capa!le o" pro$iding the power =or>energyre5uirements and the control system =although e5ually pneumatic control system!eeconomic and can !e ad$antageously applied to other "orms o" power> The main ad$o" an all pneumatic system are usually economic andsimplicity the latter reducingmaintenance to a low le$el )t can also ha$e out standingad$antages in terms o" sa"ety/&'+DUCT)+* +F C+M&'ESSED %)'. &neumatic systems operate on a supply o" compreswhich must !e madea$aila!le )n su#cient 5uantity and at a pressure to suit the capacitythe system 6henpneumatic system is !eing adopted "or the 7rst time, howe$er it wills ithenecessary to deal with the 5uestion o" compressed air supply The key part o" any "ac"or supply o" compressed air is !y means usingreciprocating compressor % compressor imachine that takes in air, gas at a certainpressure and deli$ered the air at a high pressuCompressor capacity is the actual 5uantity o" air compressed and deli$ered and the$olume8pressed is that o" the air at intake conditions namely at atmosphere pressureand normam!ient temperature Clean condition o" the suction air is one o" the "actors,which decidli"e o" a compressor 6arm and moist suction air will result in @

A A increased precipitation o" condense "rom the compressed air Compressor may !eclasin two general types. 1 &ositi$e displacement compressor / Tur!o compressor &ositi$edisplacement compressors are most "re5uently employed "orcompressed air plant and hpro$ed highly success"ul and supply air "or pneumaticcontrol application The types o" pocompressor 1 'eciprocating type compressor / 'otary type compressor Tur!o compressare employed where large capacity o" air re5uired at lowdischarge pressures They cannattain pressure necessary "or pneumatic controlapplication unless !uilt in multistage desand are seldom encountered in pneumaticser$ice/A 'EC)&'+C%T)*4 C+M&'ESS+'S. 9

either stationary =or> porta!le ser$ice the reciprocating compressor is !y"ar the most comtype 'eciprocating compressors lap !e had is si-es "rom thesmallest capacities to deli$emore than mGmin )n single stage compressor, the airpressure may !e o" ; !ar macdischarge o" pressure is up to 1 !ars Dischargepressure in the range o" / !ars can !o!tained with high pressure reciprocatingcompressors that o" three "our stages Singleand 1/ stage models are particularly suita!le "or pneumaticapplications , with pre"eregoing to the two stage design as soon as the dischargepressure e8ceeds ; !ar , !ecausecapa!le o" matching the per"ormance o" single stagemachine at lower costs per dri$ing pin the range A

CH%&TE'(@ @ F%CT+'S DETE'M)*)*4 THE CH+)CE +F M%TE')%LS The $arious "actorsdetermine the choice o" material are discussed !elow@1 &roperties. The material selectmust posses the necessary properties "or the proposedapplication The $arious re5uirem!e satis7ed can !e weight, sur"ace 7nish,rigidity, a!ility to withstand en$ironmental atta"rom chemicals, ser$ice li"e, relia!ilityetc The "ollowing "our types o" principle propertiesmaterials decisi$ely aect theirselection a &hysical ! Mechanical c From manu"acturingo" $iew d Chemical The $arious physical properties concerned are melting point,

ThermalConducti$ity, Speci7c heat, coe#cient o" thermal e8pansion, speci7c gra$ity,electricalConducti$ity, Magnetic purposes etc The $arious Mechanical properties Concerare strength in tensile, compressi$eshear, !ending, torsional and !uckling load, "atigueresistance, impact resistance, elasticlimit, endurance limit, and modulus o" elasticity, hawear resistance and slidingproperties

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; ; @/ Manu"acturing Case. Sometimes the demand "or lowest possi!le manu"acturing cosur"ace 5ualitieso!taina!le !y the application o" suita!le coating su!stances may demanuse o"special materials@@ Iuality 'e5uired. This generally aects the manu"acturing prand ultimately the material Fore8ample, it would ne$er !e desira!le to go "or casting o" num!er o" componentswhich can !e "a!ricated much more economically !y welding or h"orging the steel@A %$aila!ility o" Material. Some materials may !e scarce or in short su

then !ecomes o!ligatory "orthe designer to use some other material which though may a per"ect su!stitute "orthe material designed The deli$ery o" materials and the deli$ery o" product should also !e kept inmind@ Space Consideration. Sometimes high strengthmaterials ha$e to !e selected !ecause the "orces in$ol$edare high and the space limitatare there@; Cost. %s in any other pro!lem, in selection o" material the cost o" material panimportant part and should not !e ignored Some times "actors like scrap utili-ation,appearance, and non(maintenance o" thedesigned part are in$ol$ed in the selection o" pmaterials ;

B B Dynamic Compressors B♣ &ositi$e Displacement Compressor ♣ 'otating &latesA11%C+M&'ESS+'. The main "unction o" the air compressor is to compress the air up to there5uiredpressure The ma8imum capacity o" the compressor is 1@1 to 1/ @1 *Gm/is atwo stages or two(cylinder reciprocating air compressor The two cylinders are "or low

high compression The air pressure is measured at $arious places !y the use o"pressuregauges 0(!elt and pulley are used to dri$e the compressor Compressors can !e !roadly

classi7eds into two groups They are. ♣ 0ehicle model "rame ♣ 6heel arrangement ♣ 9ewith !earing cap ♣ Flow control $al$e ♣ Connecting hoses ♣ Cylinder ♣ Direction Contro♣ %ir compressor ♣CH%&TE'(A A C+M&+*E*TS %*D DESC')&T)+*A1 M%J+' &%'TS. Theparts &*EUM%T)C TH'EE %)S M+DE'* T)&&E'N are descri!ed!elow.

O O A111&ositi$e Displacement Compressor. Successi$e $olumes o" air isolated and thencompressed to a higher pressureThere are essential two "orms o" positi$e displacementcompressor, reciprocating androtaryA11/Dynamic Compressors. These are rotary contmachines in which a high speed rotating elementaccelerates the air and con$erts the res$elocity head into pressure &ositi$e displacement compressors work on the principle o"increasing the pressure o"a de7nite $olume in an enclosed cham!er Dynamic =tur!o>compressor employs rotating$anes or impellers to impart $elocity and pressure to the Pothe air !eing handledThe pressure comes "rom the dynamic eects such as centri"ugal"orceA1/ &'ESSU'E 4%U4E. &ressure gauge is used "or measuring the outlet pressure "rom thecompressor The gauge used is 9ourdon type pressure gauge The ma8imum cao"this gauge is 1 @1 to 1/ @1 *Gm/ The gauge is 7tted at the outlet o" theaircompressorA1@ D)'ECT)+*%L C+*T'+L 0%L0ES.A1@1 &neumatic $al$es. The pneucylinder is regulated and controlled !y pneumatic $al$es These$al$es are actuated manmechanically, electrically, pneumatically, and !y $ariouscom!ined mode o" actuation O

: : A1@/*eed o" 0al$es. D)'ECT)+*%L C+*T'+L 0%L0ES To control the to and "ro motioo"cylinder, the Puid energy has to !e regulated, controlled and re$ersed with apredetermse5uence in a pneumatic system Similarly one may ha$e to control the 5uantity o" pressand Pow rate togenerate the desired le$el o" "orce and speed o" actuators To achie$e th"unctions,$al$es are used 0al$es are Puid power elements used "or controlling and regu

theworking medium The main "unctions o" the $al$es are. Q Start and stop the Puid enerControl the direction o" Pow o" compressed air Q Control the Pow rate o" the Puid Q Contrpressure rating o" the Puid%lthough $arious types o" $al$es are a$aila!le, they are mainlclassi7ed as !elow. Q Direction control $al$es Q Direction control check $al$es Q Flow con$al$es Q &ressure control $al$es The main purpose o" a $al$e in a pneumatic circuit is tocontrol outputs 0al$escan !e di$ided into a num!er o" groups according to what theycontrolA1@@ Directional control $al$es. Directional control $al$e on the receipt o" somee8ternal signal, which might !emechanical, electrical or a Puid pressure pilot signal, cha

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the direction o" or stops, orstarts the Pow o" Puid in some part o" the pneumaticGhydraulcircuit :

11 'otary actuators are used to mo$e an o!Kect in a circular path 'otary actuators are

Puid power e5ui$alent o" an electric motor 1♣ Linear actuators can !e di$ided into twotypesThey are. 1 Single acting cylinders / Dou!le acting cylinders % single acting cylinpowered !y Puid "or the mo$ement o" the piston in onedirection with it !eing returned in

other direction !y an internal spring or an e8ternal"orce, a dou!le acting cylinder is powePuid in !oth directions ♣ Linear actuators are used to mo$e an o!Kect or apply a "orce instraight line ♣A1@A &ressure Control 0al$es. These are used to control the pressure in the pneumaticGhydraulic circuitA1@ Flow Control 0al$es. These are used to control tho" Pow o" a Puid through the $al$e % directional control $al$e on the receipt o" some, e8signal, which might !emechanical, electrical or a Puid pilot signal, changes the directionstops, or starts thePow o" Puid in some part o" the pneumaticGhydraulic circuit They can used to carryout such "unctions as. 1 Controlling the direction o" motion o" an actuator /Selecting alternati$e Pow paths "or a Puid @ Stopping and starting the Pow o" PuidCarrout logic "unctions such as %*D, +', *%*DA1@; %ctuators. %n actuator is a de$ice thatused to apply a "orce to an o!KectFluid power actuators can !e classi7ed into two groups

1111 A1A &*EUM%T)C CL)*DE'S. Cylinders are the one, which oers the rectilinear moti

mechanical elementsCylinders are classi7ed as light, medium, and hea$y duty with resptheirapplicationA1A1Single %cting Cylinders. )n this type, the cylinder can produce woin one direction The returnmo$ement o" the piston is eected !y a !uilt in spring or !yapplication o" an e8ternal"orce The spring is designed to return the piston to its initial powith a su#cientlyhigh speed Types o" single acting cylinders. Q Diaphragm cylinder Q 'odiaphragm cylinderA1A/Dou!le %cting Cylinder. The "orce e8erted !y the compressed mo$es the piston in two directions ina dou!le acting cylinder They are used particularly the piston is re5uired toper"orm work not only on the ad$ance mo$ement !ut also on thereturn )n principle, thestroke length is unlimited, although !uckling and !ending must !econsidered !e"ore weselect a particular si-e o" piston diameter, rod length and stroke len6e use cylinders that are dou!le acting type =ie> the compressed air can !epassed to eend o" the cylinder These cylinders are made up o" cast iron 11

1/1/ A1 SE%LS.A11 %ir Seal. %ir seal is used to pre$ent the leakage o" air pressure "r

cylinder *ormallyit is made up o" neoprene ru!!er )" there are any air leakages in the syit will reducethe e#ciencyA1/6iper Seal. 6iper seal is pro$ided at the entrance o" thcylinder to a$oid dust materials "romthe en$ironment )t is made up o" neopreneru!!erA1@+N 'ing. The +N rings are 7tted into the groo$es o" piston to maintain peseal !etweenthe piston and the cylinder wall They are mostly made up o" neopreneru!!erA1; CL)*DE' TECH*)C%L D%T%.9arrel. )t is made o" cold drawn aluminimum ho/mm&iston 'od. MS hard Chrome platedSeals. *itrile =9una R *> ElastomerEnd Co$ersiron graded 7ne grained "rom /mm to @mm&iston. %luminiumMedia. %irTemperature'ange. c to OcCushions. %dKusta!le standard on Amm !ore and a!o$e 1/

1@1@ A1B C+**ECT+'S. )n our system there are two types o" connectors used one is theconnector andthe other is the reducer Hose connectors normally comprise an adapter=connector> hosenipple and cap nut These types o" connectors are made up o" !rass or

%liminium orhardened steel 'educers are used to pro$ide inter connection !etween twoor hoses o"dierent si-es They may !e 7tted straight, tee, 0N or other con7gurations

Thesereducers are made up o" gunmetal or other materials like hardened steel etcA1OC+*T'+L 0%L0E. )n any Puid power circuit, Pow control $al$e is used to control the speetheactuator The Poe control can !e achie$ed 9y $arying the area o" Pow through which in passing 6hen area is increased, more 5uantity o" air will !e sent to actuator as a resuitsspeed will increase )" the 5uantity o" air entering into the actuator is reduced, the spethe actuator is reduced 1@



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1A1A A1:9E%')*4 6)TH 9E%')*4 C%&. The !earings are pressed smoothly to 7t into the !ecause i" hammered the!earing may de$elop cracks 9earing is made upo" steel mater!earing cap is mildsteel 9all and roller !earings are used widely in instruments and macinorder to minimi-e "riction and power loss 6hile the concept o" the !all !earingdates !aleast to Leonardo da 0inci, their design and manu"acture has !ecomeremarka!ly sophist

This technology was !rought to its p resent state o " per"ection onlya"ter a long period o"

research and de$elopment The !ene7ts o" such speciali-edresearch can !e o!tained whpossi!le to use a standardi-ed !earing o" theproper si-e and type Howe$er, such !earincannot !e used indiscriminately without a care"ulstudy o" the loads and operating condit)n addition, the !earing must !epro$ided with ade5uate mounting, lu!rication andsealingA11 6HEEL %''%*4EME*T. The wheels are 7tted to the !ody o" the $ehicle whelp o" end !earing and !earing caps The wheels are made up o" 7!er materialA111 T9+D. The tipper !ody is made up o" mild steel sheet metal This "rame is look like a smamodel trailerA11/ '+T%T)*4 &L%TES. The rotating plates are 78ed in the !ottom the tra!ody, so that the cylinder willrotates in the re5uired side The plates are made up o" mildmaterials 1A

11 CH%&TE'( 9%TTE'1 )*T'+DUCT)+*. )n isolated systems away "rom the grid,!atteries are used "or storage o" e8cesssolar energy con$erted into electrical energy Thee8ceptions are isolated sunshineload such as irrigation pumps or drinking water suppliesstorage )n "act "or smallunits with output less than one kilowatt 9atteries seem to !e thtechnically andeconomically a$aila!le storage means Since !oth the photo($oltaic syste!atteriesare high in capital costs )t is necessary that the o$erall system !e optimi-ed wirespectto a$aila!le energy and local demand pattern To !e economically attracti$e thestorageo" solar electricity re5uires a !attery with a particular com!ination o" properties. Low cost =/> Long li"e =@> High relia!ility =A> High o$erall e#ciency => Low discharge =;>Minimum maintenance =%> %mpere hour e#ciency =9> 6att hour e#ciency 6e use lead a!attery "or storing the electrical energy "rom the solar panel "orlighting the street and sothe lead acid cells are e8plained !elow 1

1;1; / LE%D(%C)D 6ET CELL. 6here high $alues o" load current are necessary, the lead(cell is the type mostcommonly used The electrolyte is a dilute solution o" sul"uric acid =HIn theapplication o" !attery power to start the engine in an auto mo!ile, "or e8ample, the

loadcurrent to the starter motor is typically / to A% +ne cell has a nominal output o!ut lead(acid cells are o"ten used in a series com!ination o" three "or a ;(0 !atteryand si1/(0 !attery The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can !erechargedThe charge and discharge cycle can !e repeated many times to restore the ou$oltage,as long as the cell is in good physical condition Howe$er, heat with e8cessi$echargeand discharge currents shortened the use"ul li"e to a!out @ to years "or anautomo!ile!attery +" the dierent types o" secondary cells, the lead(acid type has thehighestoutput $oltage, which allows "ewer cells "or a speci7ed !attery $oltage@C+*ST'UCT)+*. )nside a lead(acid !attery, the positi$e and negati$e electrodes consist groupo" plates welded to a connecting strap The plates are immersed in theelectrolyte,consisting o" O parts o" water to @ parts o" concentrated sul"uric acid Each pla gridor "ramework, made o" a lead(antimony alloy This construction ena!les theacti$ematerial, which is lead o8ide, to !e pasted into the grid )n manu"acture o" the cell,a"orming charge produces the positi$e and negati$e electrodes )n the "orming process,tacti$e material in the positi$e plate is changed to lead pero8ide =p!o). The negativeelectrodspongy lead (pb). 16

1B1B 1B1O1O %utomo!ile !atteries are usually shipped dry "rom the manu"acturer Theelectrolyte

in at the time o" installation, and then the !attery is charged to "rom theplates 6ithmaintenance("ree !atteries, little or no water need !e added in normalser$ice Some typsealed, e8cept "or a pressure $ent, without pro$ision "or addingwater The construction p

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!attery are shown in 7gure =;>A CHEM)C%L %CT)+*. Sul"uric acid is a com!ination o"hydrogen and sul"ate ions 6hen the celldischarges, lead pero8ide "rom the positi$e eleccom!ines with hydrogen ions to"orm water and with sul"ate ions to "orm lead sul"ateCom!ining lead on the negati$eplate with sul"ate ions also produces he sul"ate There "onet result o" discharge isto produce more water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to "ormsul"ate on theplates %s the discharge continues, the sul"ate 7lls the pores o" the grids,

retardingcirculation o" acid in the acti$e material Lead sul"ate is the powder o"ten seen otheoutside terminals o" old !atteries 6hen the com!ination o" weak electrolyte andsul"aon the plate lowers the output o" the !attery, charging is necessary +n charge, the e8teDC source re$erses the current in the !attery There$ersed direction o" ions Pows in theelectrolyte result in a re$ersal o" the chemicalreactions *ow the lead sul"ates on the posplate reacti$e with the water and sul"ateions to produce lead pero8ide and sul"uric acid action re("orms the positi$e platesand makes the electrolyte stronger !y adding sul"uric %t the same time, charging ena!les the lead sul"ate on the negati$e plate to reactwithhydrogen ions this also "orms sul"uric acid while re"orming lead on the negati$eplate to with hydrogen ions this also "orms currents can restore the cell to "ulloutput, with leadpero8ide on the positi$e plates, spongy lead on the negati$e plate, andthe re5uiredconcentration o" sul"uric acid in the electrolyte 1O

1:1: The chemical e5uation "or the lead(acid cell is Charge&! W p!+ + 2HSOV 2pbSOV + 2HDischarge 1

// //1/1 +n discharge, the p! and p!o co!bine "ith the SOV ions at the le#t side o# thee$%ation to #or! le

s%l#ate (pbSOV) and "ater (HO) at the right side o# the e$%ation.One battery consists o" ; cell, each ha$e output $oltage o" /10, which are connectedin series to get an $oltage o" 1/0 and the sa1/0 !attery is connected in series, to getan /A 0 !attery They are placed in the water piron casing !o8 C%')*4 F+' LE%D(%C)D 9%TTE')ES. %lways use e8treme caution whehandling !atteries and electrolyte 6earglo$es, goggles and old clothes 9attery acidN w!urn skin and eyes and destroycotton and wool clothing The 5uickest way o" ruin lead(a!atteries is to discharge them deeply and lea$ethem stand deadN "or an e8tended periotime 6hen they discharge, there is achemical change in the positi$e plates o" the !atte

They change "rom lead o8ide whencharge out lead sul"ate when discharged )" they rema

the lead Sul"ate State "or a"ew days, some part o" the plate dose not returns to lead o8idwhen the !attery isrecharged )" the !attery remains discharge longer, a greater amountpositi$e platewill remain lead sul"ate The parts o" the plates that !ecome sul"ateN no lostoreenergy 9atteries that are deeply discharged, and then charged partially on a regula!asiscan "ail in less then one year Check your !atteries on a regular !asis to !e sure thearegetting charged Use a hydrometer to check the speci7c gra$ity o" your lead acid!att)" !atteries are cycled $ery deeply and then recharged 5uickly, the speci7cgra$ity readin!e lower than it should !ecause the electrolyte at the top o" the!attery may not ha$e miwith the chargedN electrolyte Check the electrolyte le$el in the wet(cell !atteries at the"our times a yearand top each cell o" with distilled water Do not add water to discharged!atteriesElectrolyte is a!sor!ed when !atteries are $ery discharged )" you add water attime,and then recharge the !attery, electrolyte will o$erPow and make a mess /1

//// Xeep the top o" your !atteries clean and check that ca!les are tight Do not tightenoremo$e ca!les while charging or discharging %ny spark around !atteries can cause ahyde8plosion inside, and ruin one o" the cells, and you +n charge, with re$erse current throthe electrolyte, the chemical action isre$ersed Then the p! ions "rom the lead sul"ate onright side o" the e5uation re("ormthe lead and lead pero8ide electrodes %lso the S+V ionsco!bine "ith H ions #ro! the"ater to prod%ce !ore s%l#%ric acid at the le#t side o# the e$%ation.&.6 '*,TI-S /ead0acid batteries are generally rated in ter!s o# ho" !%ch discharge c%rrentsthey can s%pply #or

speci#ied period o# time the output $oltage must !e maintaineda!o$e a minimum le$el, wh1 to 1O0 per cell % common rating is ampere(hours=%h> !ased on a speci7c discharg



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which is o"ten Oh Typical $alues "orautomo!ile !atteries are 1 to @ %h %s an e8am/ %h !attery can supply a load current o" /GO or /%, usedon Oh discharge The !atcan supply less current "or a longer time or more current "ora shorter time %utomo!ile!atteries may !e rated "or cold cranking powerN, which isrelated to the Ko! o" starting tengine % typical rating is A% "or @s at a temperatureo" degree F *ote that the amphour unit speci7es coulom!s o" charge For instance, /%h corresponds to /%Y@;

=1h the e5uals B/, %S, or coulom!s+ne ampere(second is e5ual to onecoulom! Then the charge e5uals B/, orB/Y1ZC To put this much charge !ack the !attery would re5uire / hours with acharging current o" 1% The ratings "or lead(ac!atteries are gi$en "or a temperature range o" BB to OZFHigher temperature increase thchemical reaction, !ut operation a!o$e 11ZF shortensthe !attery li"e //

/@/@ Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and $oltage output The ampere(hourcapacity is reduced appro8imately B[ "or each decreases o" 1Z F !elow normaltemperating %t ZF the a$aila!le output is only ; [ o" the ampere(hour !atteryrating )n coldweather, there"ore, it is $ery important to ha$e an automo!ile !attery unto"ull charge )naddition, the electrolyte "ree-es more easily when diluted !y water in thedischargedconditionO CH%'4)*4 THE LE%D(%C)D 9%TE'. The re5uirements are illustrated in 7gue8ternal DC $oltage source isnecessary to produce current in one direction %lso, the ch$oltage must !e morethan the !attery em" %ppro8imately / per cell are enough to o$cell em" so that the charging$oltage can produce current opposite to the direction o"discharge current *ote that there$ersal o" current is o!tained Kust !y connecting the !at09 and charging source 04with W to W and Rto(, as shown in 7gure The charging currenre$ersed !ecause the!attery eecti$ely !ecomes a load resistance "or 04 when it highe09 )n thise8ample, the net $oltage a$aila!le to produce charging currents is 1(1/


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/;/; The motor run3s according to the principle o" Fleming3s le"t hand rule 6hen acurrentcarrying conductor is placed in a magnetic 7eld is produced to mo$e theconductor away the magnetic 7eld The conductor carrying current to *orth and South poles is !eing rem)n thea!o$e stated two conditions there is no mo$ement o" the conductors 6hene$er acurrentcarrying conductor is placed in a magnetic 7eld The 7eld due to the current intheconductor !ut opposes the main 7eld !elow the conductor %s a result the Pu8 densit

the conductor )t is "ound that a "orce acts on the conductor to push the conductordownw)" the current in the conductor is re$ersed, the strengthening o" the Pu8 linesoccurs !eloconductor, and the conductor will !e pushed upwards %s stated a!o$e the coil side % wi"orced to mo$e downwards, where as thecoil side 9 will !e "orced to mo$e upwards The acting on the coil sides % and 9will !e the same coil magnitudes, !ut their directions willopposite to one another )nDC machines coils are wound on the armature core, which issupported !y the !earings,enhances rotation o" the armature The commutator periodicare$erses the direction o"current Pow through the armature Thus the armature rotatescontinuously /;

/B/B %n electric motor is all a!out magnets and magnetism. a motor uses magnets tocreamotion )" you ha$e e$er played with magnets you know a!out the "undamentallaw o" almagnets. +pposites attract and likes repel So i" you ha$e / !ar magnets with their endsmarked north and south, then the*orth end o" one magnet will attract the South end o" tother +n the other hand, the*orth end o" one magnet will repel the *orth end o" the oth=and similarly south willrepel south> )nside an electric motor these attracting and repelli"orces create rotationalmotion )n the diagram a!o$e and !elow you can see two magnetthe motor, thearmature =or rotor> is an electromagnet, while the 7eld magnet is a permamagnet=the 7eld magnet could !e an electromagnet as well, !ut in most small motors it tosa$e power>;@ Electromagnets and Motors. To understand how an electric motor workey is to understand how theelectromagnet works %n electromagnet is the !asis o" an emotor ou canunderstand how things work in the motor !y imagining the "ollowing scenSay that you created a simple electromagnet !y wrapping 1 loops o" wirearound a naiconnecting it to a !attery The nail would !ecome a magnet and ha$e a*orth and South while the !attery is connected *ow say that you take your nailelectromagnet, run an a8through the middle o" it, and you suspended it in the middle o"a horseshoe magnet as sh

in the 7gure !elow )" you were to attach a !attery to the electromagnet so that the *orto" thenail appeared as shown, the !asic law o" magnetism tells you what would happen.

/O/O The *orth end o" the electromagnet would !e repelled "rom the north end o" thehorsmagnet and attracted to the south end o" the horseshoe magnet The South end o" theelectromagnet would !e repelled in a similar way The nailwould mo$e a!out hal" a turn then stop in the position shown ou can see that this hal"(turn o" motion is simple and o!ecause o"the way magnets naturally attract and repel one another The key to an electrmotor is tothen go one step "urther so that, at the moment that this hal"(turn o" motioncompletes, the7eld o" the electromagnet Pips The Pip causes the electromagnet to comanother hal"(turn o" motion ouPip the magnetic 7eld simply !y changing the direction oelectrons Powing in thewire =you do that !y Pipping the !attery o$er> )" the 7eld o" theelectromagnet Pipped atKust the right moment at the end o" each hal"(turn o" motion, theelectric motor wouldspin "reelyThe %rmature. The armature takes the place o" the nail inelectric motor The armature is anelectromagnet made !y coiling thin wire around two orpoles o" a metal core Thearmature has an a8le, and the commutator is attached to the athe diagram a!o$eyou can see three dierent $iews o" the same armature. "ront, side anon )n the end(on $iew the winding is eliminated to make the commutator more o!$ious can seethat the commutator is simply a pair o" plates attached to the a8le These platespro$idethe two connections "or the coil o" the electromagnet /O

/:/: ;A The Commutator and !rushes. The \Pipping the electric 7eld\ part o" an electric maccomplished !y twoparts. the commutator and the !rushes The diagram at the right sh



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how the commutator and !rushes work together tolet current Pow to the electromagnet,also to Pip the direction that the electrons arePowing at Kust the right moment The contathe commutator are attached to the a8le o" the electromagnet, sothey spin with the mag!rushes are Kust two pieces o" springy metal or car!on thatmake contact with the contaccommutator&utting )t %ll Together.6hen you put all o" these parts together, what you hacomplete electric motor. )n this 7gure, the armature winding has !een le"t out so that it i

to see thecommutator in action The key thing to notice is that as the armature passes ththehori-ontal position, the poles o" the electromagnet Pip 9ecause o" the Pip, the *orth the electromagnet is always a!o$e the a8leso it can repel the 7eld magnets *orth pole aattract the 7eld magnets South pole )" you e$er take apart an electric motor you will 7ndcontains the samepieces descri!ed a!o$e. two small permanent magnets, a commutato!ru

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