assignment pku 3106 - pentaksiran dalam pendidikan khas

7/23/2019 Assignment PKU 3106 - Pentaksiran Dalam Pendidikan Khas

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ZGKEOMYEMMK

Mhomcnuhh h̀mo, igrsyubur smym bgomnrmt @hmo` bgrmkm ngkemk h`cpmo nmk

burk`mKym, mbo`rkym nmpmt luem smym cgky`mpbmk tuemsmk ymke nìgr`bmk ahgo

pgksymrmo smym ymke ige`tu smym oarcmt`, F`b Yaomkm I`kt` Hmt. Vgtghmo igigrmpm

c`keeu smym igrtukebus-hucus uktub cgky`mpbmk tuemsmk `k` mbo`rkym smym tghmo

cgknmpmt oms`h ymke sgt`cpmh ngkemk usmom smym `tu.

Vgsukeeuokym, tmkpm sgarmke pgci`ci`ke ymke igreghmr pgksymrmo, smym t`nmb

nmpmt cgky`mpbmk tuemsmk `k` ngkemk cmsm ymke n`pgruktubbmk. Igh`mu tghmo

igrsukeeuo-sukeeuo cgcigr` pgkgrmkemk ime` tuemsmk `k` bgpmnm smym. Vgimrmke

pgrcmsmmhmomk ymke tghmo nòmnmp` ahgo pghmlmr-pghmlmr n` nmhmc bghms tghmo igh`mu

tgrmkebmk ngkemk tgrpgr`kf` sgo`keem pghmlmr-pghmlmr cgcmomc` tgktmke mpm ymke

t`nmb n`dmomc`.

^`nmb hupm luem nùfmpbmk tgr`cm bmsò bgpmnm bmwmk-bmwmk ymke tghmo imkymb

cgcimktu smym nmhmc cgky`mpbmk tuemsmk `k` tgrutmcmkym rmbmk-rmbmk bghms

sgpgrlumkemk. Vgsukeeuokym tmkpm cgkegkmh grt` lgcu cgrgbm tghmo cgcimktu smym

bgt`bm smym iuktu nmk t`nmb dmomc igigrmpm pgrbmrm sgcmsm cgky`mpbmk tuemsmk `k`.

Vgsukeeuokym iun`cu `tu t`nmb nmpmt nìmhms ngkemk wmke r`kee`t.

^`nmb hupm luem bgpmnm `stgr` nmk bghumrem smym ymke imkymb cgcigr` sabakemk

bgpmnm smym nmhmc cgky`mpbmk tuemsmk `k` ngkemk im`b nmk cgke`but lmkebm cmsm

ymke tghmo n`tgtmpbmk. Vmym mcmt cgkeomrem` sabakemk cgrgbm ymke t`nmb ogkt`-ogkt`

`tu.

Mbo`r bmtm, smym igromrmp memr oms`h tuemsmk smym `k` mbmk cgcigr` cmkdmmt

nmr` sge` pgkmcimomk `hcu pgkegtmoumk iubmk smomlm uktub n`r` sgkn`r` cmhmomk luem

bgpmnm sgs`mpm ymke cgcimfmkym bghmb.Vgb`mk tgr`cm bmsò.

ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV = | Z m e g



^mlub ûemsmk

Bgiahgomk cgk`hm` nmk cgktmbs`r mnmhmo smkemt pgkt`ke ime` sgarmke euru

pgkn`n`bmk boms. Bgcmo`rmk cgk`hm` nmk cgktmbs`r `k` n`bmtmbmk cgcpukym` ouiuke

bm`t ymke smkemt rmpmt ngkemk bgigrbgsmkmk pghmbsmkmmk pgkemlmrmk nmk

pgcighmlmrmk n` nmhmc bghms. Vgsgarmke euru pgrhu cgkegtmou` fmrm cgkeucpuh

cmbhucmt ymke n`bgogknmb`, cgciumt mkmh`s`s tgktmke cmbhucmt ymke tghmo n`bucpuh

nmk cgciumt pgktmds`rmk tgktmke cmbhucmt tgrsgiut uktub cgcimktukym cgciumt

pgrmkfmkemk nmk pghmbsmkmmk pgkemlmrmk nmk pgcighmlmrmk.

Vui ûemsmk = (6:%)

Igrnmsmrbmk bgpmnm rulubmk `hc`mo, sucigr-sucigr nmhmc `ktgrkgt mtmu lurkmh, mknm

n`bgogknmb` cgkeucpuh cmbhucmt cgkegkm` smtu lgk`s cmsmhmo ymke nòmnmp` ahgo

cur`n-cur`n Zgkn`n`bmk Boms. Z h̀ò smtu bmtgear` Zgkn`n`bmk Boms (cmsmhmo

pgkngkemrmk, cmsmhmo pgcighmlmrmk, cmsmhmo pgkeh̀ omtmk), i`kfmkebmk fmrm

cgkemtms` cmsmhmo igrbgkmmk. Mknm n`bgogknmb` cgkuh`s smtu ourm`mk (mktmrm >-7

cubm surmt) igrnmsmrbmk cmbhucmt ymke n`nmpmt` n` imwmo tmlub-tmlub igr`but <

m. Vmtu lgk`s cmsmhmo ymke nòmnmp` ahgo cur̀ n-cur`n Zgkn`n`bmk Boms (p`hò smtu

lgk`s bgcmo`rmk uktub smtu bmtgear` smomlm).

i. Vtrmtge` ymke iahgo nèukmbmk uktub cgcimktu cgkemtms` cmsmhmo tgrsgiut.

Imomk-imomk cmbhucmt ymke rghgvmk ogknmbhmo n`bucpuhbmk nmhmc igktub

dahà sgimem` iubt` rulubmk tghmo nìumt.

Ourm`mk Igrnmsmrbmk Yulubmk @hc`mo, Vucigr-sucigr Nmhmc @ktgrkgt Mtmu Lurkmh

ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV 9 | Z m e g



Lurkmh ymke igrtmlub Zgkeeukmmk Mhmt Imktumk Zgkngkemrmk N` Bmhmkemk

Cur`n-cur`n Igrcmsmhmo Zgkngkemrmk cgci`kfmkebmk tgktmke bgpgkt`kemk

pgkeeukmmk mhmt imktu pgkngkemrmk nmhmc pgrbgcimkemk imomsm cur`n-cur`n ymke

igrcmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk. Mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk cgcimktu bmkmb-bmkmb

igrcmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk cgkngkemr iuky`-iuky` pgrtuturmk nmk cgcimktu

cgcpghmlmr` pgrtuturmk (Fhmrb =0?02Yacmk`b =00:). Bgimkymbmk bmkmb-bmkmb cmsmhmo

pgkngkemrmk cmsò cgcpukym` s`sm pgkngkemrmk tgtmp` cgrgbm omkym iahgo

cgkngkemr iuky`-iuky` ymke bumt smomlm. N`sgimibmk ahgo cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk,

bmkmb-bmkmb bmtgear̀ `k` cgkemhmc` cmsmhmo cgkeumsm` pgrtuturmk nmk imomsm.

Cgkurut Emtty (=009), bmkmb-bmkmb ighmlmr pgrtuturmk sgfmrm spaktmk cghmhu` `ktgrmbs`

omr`mk ngkemk armke ngwmsm.

Zgkeeukmmk mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk mcmt pgrhu ime` bmkmb-bmkmb cmsmhmo

pgkngkemrmk uktub cgcimktu cgrgbm cgcmomc` nmk cgkeumsm` imomsm sgrtm

pgrtuturmk. Mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk ymke nèukmbmk ahgo bmkmb-bmkmb cmsmhmo

pgkngkemrmk n` sgbahmo t`nmb n`lmem ngkemk im`b nmk sgimome`mkkym cgkemhmc`

bgrasmbmk. ^grnmpmt luem euru-euru ymke t`nmb cgcpukym` pgkegtmoumk ymke

cgkfubup` cgkegkm` pgklmemmk msms mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk. Zgkeeukmmk mhmt

imktumk pgkngkemrmk ymke rasmb iahgo cgkembìmtbmk pgcmbm`kym cgkemhmc`

tmcimomk bgo`hmkemk pgkngkemrmk sgimkymb 6:nI hme`. Euru pgrhu cgcmktmu

pgkeeukmmk mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk memr `m nmpmt igrdukes` ngkemk im`b.

Mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk `tu cgrupmbmk mhmt ghgbtrak`b ymke igrigktub bgf`h

nmk nèukmbmk uktub cgcimktu cgkeumtbmk iuky` pgrsgb`tmrmk ime` ymke igrcmsmhmo

pgkngkemrmk. ^grnmpmt tèm bacpakgk utmcm nmhmc mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk `m`tu

mhmt pgkgr`cm, pgkeumt sumrm, nmk farake sumrm. Mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmkcgcpukym` gcpmt lgk`s mhmt imktu ngkemr `m`tu n` ighmbmke tgh`kem, n` nmhmc tgh`kem,

n`pmbm` pmnm imnmk, nmk mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk fgrc`k cmtm.

Igrnmsmrbmk nmpmtmk bml`mk, sgrmcm` 9> armke cur`n nmr`pmnm =>= armke n`

gcpmt iumo sgbahmo n` bmwmsmk Hgcimo Bhmke, Vghmkear ymke omkym cgcmbm` mhmt




imktumk pgkngkemrmk. Oms`h nmr̀ pmnm pgcgr`bsmmk luem, n`nmpmt̀ imomwm 6?.7 %

nmr`pmnm mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk cgkeeukmbmk imtgr` ymke hgcmo nmk

cgkeoms`hbmk iuky` ymke t`nmb lghms. 67.0 % nmr`pmnm cur`n tgrsgiut n`nmpmt` mfumk

tgh`kem mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk cgrrgbm mnmhmo batar nmk tgrsucimt.

Cur`n-cur`n cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk ymke smkemt tgrub omcp`r t`nmb nmpmt

cgkegsmk iuky`-iuky` pgrtuturmk ymke n`tuturbmk bgfumh` ngkemk imktumk mhmt imktu

pgkngkemrmk. Zgromt`mk nmk bmgnmo pgkemlmrmk tgromnmp bmkmb-bmkmb cmsmhmo

pgkngkemrmk `k` mnmhmo igrigzm ngkemk bmkmb-bmkmb igrbgpgrhumk boms ymke hm`k

bgrmkm tgrnmpmt pgrigzmmk nmhmc cmsmhmo nmk bgpgrhumk cgrgbm. Omkym 60 mhmt

imktumk pgkngkemrmk ymke nèukmbmk ahgo 9> armke cur`n ymke tgrhìmt nmhmc bml`mk

`k`. Mhmt pgkngkemrmk t`nmb nmpmt igrdukes` ngkemk im`b mpmi`hm tgrnmpmt igigrmpm

cmsmhmo sgpgrt` iuky`-iuky`mk ymke t`nmb lghms, imtgr` hgcmo, mfumk tgh`kem batar nmk

tgrsucimt nmk sgimem`kym. Cmsmhmo burmkekym pgkegtmoumk ahgo euru-euru nmk ìu

impm cgkegkm` mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk cgkygimibmk cgrgbm t`nmb nmpmt cgcim`b`

mhmt tgrsgiut mpmi`hm igrhmbu bgrasmbmk. ^`nmb sgcum lgk`s bgrasmbmk mhmt imktumk

pgkngkemrmk pgrhu nòmktmr bgpmnm pmbmr.

Euru-euru nmk pgklmem pgrhuhmo cgcpukym` pgkegtmoumk cgkegkm` mhmt

imktumk pgkngkemrmk ime` cgk`kebmtbmk bumh`t` pgkeeukmmkkym, cmhmo cur`n-cur`n

luem pgrhu nì`ci`ke cgkegkm` pgklmemmk nmk cgkegsmk sgkn`r` sgmknm`kym mhmt

tgrsgiut t`nmb nmpmt igrdukes` ngkemk im`b. Mhmt imktumk pgkngkemrmk mcmt pgkt`ke

ime` cur̀ n-cur̀ n cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk bgrmkm `m nmpmt cgcimktu cur̀ n-cur̀ n

tgrsgiut cgkeumsm` pgrtuturmk nmk iuky -̀iuky` pgrsgb`tmrmk. Euru-euru iahgo

cgke`but̀ bursus-bursus pgkngb memr nmpmt cgcpgrbgcimkebmk hme` `hcu

pgkegtmoumk tgrb`k` nmk cgk`kebmtbmk pgrbo`ncmtmk pgkn`n`bmk bgpmnm mkmb-mkmb

cur`n cgrgbm.

Lurkmh ymke igrtmlub Bgcunmofmpm`mk Zgr`s`mk Zgkn`n`bmk Cuht`cgn`m Wktub

Zgkeeukm Cmsmhmo Zgkngkemrmk puhm cgci`kfmkebmk cgkegkm` bml`mk mwmh

tgromnmp bgpgrhumk cgrgbmigktub pgr`s`mk pgkn`n`bmk cuht`cgn`m uktub cgk`kebmtbmk

ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV > | Z m e g



bgcunmofmpm`mk armke burmke upmym cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk. Zgkeeukmmk `ktgrkgt

mcmt pgkt̀ ke nmk cgcigr` bgsmk nmhmc bgo`nupmk armke cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk

bgrmkm `m cgcunmobmk cgrgbm uktub cgknmpmt fmpm`mk cmbhucmt nmk pgkegtmoumk

nmk lmr`kemk bacuk`bms` nmhmc pghimem` mspgb. Iubmk smomlm armke karcmh, cmhmo

armke cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk luem cgcpukym` omb ymke smcm nmhmc pgkeeukmmk @F^ ,

mhmt imktu pgkn`n`bmk, nmk pgr`s`mk igrimktubmk bacputgr (ZIB).

Zgeeukmmk tgbkahae` nmhmc pgkn`n`bmk nmk luem pgcighmlmrmk igrimktubmk

bacputgr cmcpu cgk`kebmtbmk pghumke pgkn`n`bmk bgpmnm rmcm` pghmlmr bgrmkm `m

cgcigr` imkymb dmgnmo bgpmnm pghmlmr sgpgrt` cgcpgrfgpmtbmk prasgs pgcighmlmrmk,

cgk`kebmtbmk nmym `kemtmk, igr`ktgrmbs` ngkemk bacputgr sgfmrm mbt`d, pgcighmlmrmk

ymke hgiò dhgbsì h̀`t̀ nmk luem pgcighmlmrmk bgkn r̀ .̀ Vghm`k `tu, bml`mk cgknmpmt`

imomwm cat`vms` pghmlmr nmpmt n`t`kebmtbmk ngkemk pgkeeukmmk tgbkahae` cuht`cgn`m

nmk luem `m nmpmt cgk`kebmtbmk pgkfmpm`mk pghmlmr. Zrasgs pgcighmlmrmk imomsm

nmpmt n`t`kebmtbmk ngkemk mnmkym Facputgr-Mss`stgn Hmkeumeg Hgmrk`ke (FMHH).

Zghmlmr cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk pmnm tmomp sgvgrg o`keem pradaukn nmpmt nìmktu

ngkemk pgkeeukmmk imomk imfmmk igremcimr pmnm tmomp mwmh pgcgrahgomk imomsm

igrhmbu.

N` Cmhmys`m, imomk imktumk pgkemlmrmk nmk pgcighmlmrmk ime` armke-armke

cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk nmhmc prasgs pgcighmlmrmk mnmhmo cmsò tgrhmhu burmke.

Zgr`s`mk bursus nmhmc Imomsm Cghmyu uktub bacuk`t` pgbmb n` Cmhmys`m luem mcmt

submr n`nmpmt`. ^grnmpmt luem cgkgri`tmk nmhmc igktub FN-YAC tgtmp` `m omkym nmhmc

igktub v`nga . Gdto`càu nmk Datgkm (9::5) turut igrpgknmpmt imomwm pgrmhmtmk nmhmc

pgkn`n`bmk uktub bacuk`t` pgbmb `k` cmsò burmke.

^gbkahae` mk`cms` iahgo nèukmbmk uktub pgrsgcimomk bacprgogks`d

pgrututurmk bù ime` bgcunmofmpm`mk armke cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk. Bml`mk nmkpgcimkeukmk pgr`s`mk pgkn`n`bmk CunmoBù `k` cgkeeukmbmk bmgnmo pgkeemiukemk

mktmrm pgrtuturmk bù nmk pgkemph`bms`mk pr`ks`p bgcunmofmpm`mk nmk tgbkahae`

cuht`cgn`m. Bgcunmofmpm`mk `tu igrcmbsun armke burmke upmym iahgo cgkeeukmbmk

sgsumtu pranub tgrsgiut. Zranub cuht`cgn`m ymke tghmo nìmkeukbmk hgiò cunmo uktub

n`cmsubbmk f`r`-f`r` bgcunmofmpm`mkkym igrimkn`ke nìgr`bmk bgcunmomk `tu sgcmsm




armke burmke upmym tghmo cgkeeukmbmk cgn`m tgrsgiut. Zgcimkeuk iahgo

cgk`kebmtbmk bgcunmofmpm`mk pgr`s`mk pgkn`n`bmk bgpmnm pgkeeukm ngkemk fmrm

cgkygn`mbmk sgcum cmbhucmt munà nmhmc igktub v`sumh, cgkygn`mbmk smr` bmtm ime`

sgcum pgrsgcimomk cuht̀ cgn`m, nmk cmbhucmt pgkt`ke cgst̀ hmo cmcpu cgkmr`b

pgromt`mk pgkeeukm.Ygbmigktub ymke pgrhu n`mci`hb`rm nmhmc cgrgbmigktub pgr`s`mk

pgkn`n`bmk uktub cgrgbm ymke cgcpukym` cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk `mhmo bmwmhmk nmk

kmvèms`, rgbmigktub sbr`k, ghgcgk cuht`cgn`m, rgbmigktub nabucgk O^CH, nmk hm`k-

hm`k.

Cangh pgcimkeukmk pgr`s`mk pgkn`n`bmk nmpmt nìmkeukbmk uktub armke-armke

cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk ngkemk cgkeeukmbmk dmbtar-dmbtar OF@. Cangh `k` cgkemci`h

b`rm mspgb ymke igrbm`tmk ngkemk pgkn`n`bmk sgpgrt̀ pgrsgb`tmrmk pgkemlmrmk nmk

pgcighmlmrmk, bur`buhuc, bmgnmo cgcimfm, pgkngbmtmk grrarhgss, cangh Vfmddahn`ke,

tgar` pgcighmlmrmk nmk luem cmthmcmt pgcighmlmrmk.

Bgimkymbmk imomk pgkn`n`bmk nmhmc ghgtrak`b cmsm b`k` n`rgbmigktub uktub

pgkeeukm karcmh. Vgsumtu imomk pgkn`n`bmk ymke n`rgbmigktub ngkemk cgkemci`h

b`rm `su-`su bgcunmofmpm`mk sglmb nmr` mwmh hme` nmpmt cgkeurmkebmk bas nmk

cgk`kebmtbmk i`hmkemk pgkeeukm. Zgr`s`smk bursus pgrhu nìmkeukbmk nmk n`t`kebmtbmk

hme` i`hmkemkkym ime` cghmo`rbmk hgiò rmcm` eahakemk ymke igr`hcu, cmcpu igrn`bmr`,

nmk cgrmpmtbmk lurmke mktmrm armke karcmh ngkemk armke cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk.

Vui ûemsmk 9 (7:%)




Mknm n`bgogknmb` cghmbsmkmbmk smtu bml`mk bgs tgromnmp sgarmke cur`n ymke cgkeomnmp`

cmsmhmo mtmu hgcmo nmhmc VM^W lgk`s bgcmo`rmk smcm mnm imomsm, cmtgcmt`b, pgkemcmtmk

mtmu t`kebmo hmbu. Dabus bml`mk mnmhmo tgktmke cmsmhmo ymke nòmnmp` ahgo cur`n igrbgkmmk.

Mknm pgrhu cgknmpmtbmk cmbhucmt ymke igrbm`tmk ngkemk cmsmhmo ymke nòmnmp` ahgo cur`n

tgrsgiut cghmhu` bmgnmo pgcgromt`mk, tgcu iumh, nmk luem cgkgh`t` oms`h bgrlmkym. Vghgpms `tu

mknm n`bgogknmb` cgci`km ul`mk n`mekast`b nmk cghmbsmkmbmk ul`mk tgrsgiut tgromnmp cur`n

igrbgkmmk. Mknm luem n`bgogknmb` cgciumt mkmh`s`s ul`mk n`mekast`b tgrsgiut nmk cgciumt

ourm`mk/rucusmk tgktmke bghgcmomk/cmsmhmo cur`n igrnmsmrbmk mkmh`s`s ul`mk n`mekast`b

tgrsgiut. Vgtghmo `tu igr`bmk fmnmkemk-fmnmkemk ymke cukmsmimo imem`cmkm cgcimktu

cgkemtms` bghgcmomk/cmsmhmo cur`n tgrsgiut.

Zghmparmk pralgb ymke nòms`hbmk omrus cgkemknuke` pgrbmrm-pgrbmrm igr`but <

m. Zrad`h cur`n

i. Zgrbgcimkemk cur`n nmr̀ mspgb d`z`bmh, baek`t d̀, sas`mh-gcas`, bgsòmtmk, nmk

hm`k-hm`k ymke rghgvmk.

f. Ourm`mk tgktmke cmsmhmo ymke nòmnmp` ahgo cur̀ n.

n. Wl̀ mk n`mekast`b nmk mkmh`s`s ul`mk n`mekast̀ b

g. Yucusmk/ourm`mk oms h̀ mkmh̀ s`s ul`mk n`mekast`b.

d. Fmnmkemk uktub cgkemtms` bghgcmomk/cmsmhmo cur`n.




ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV ? | Z m e g

ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV

sumtu prasgs pgcighmlmrmk ymke cgrmkebuc` mbt`v`t` cgkeourm`,cgkeucpuh, cgrgban, cgcigr` sbar nmk cgktgrlgcmo cmbhucmt tgktmkepgcighmlmrmk sgsgarmke cur`n ime` sgsumtu tulumk tgrtgktu (HgcimemZgpgr`bsmmk Cmhmys`m, 9:::)

Cmbhucmt oms`h pgktmbs`rmk mbmk n`rulub uktub cgcpgrim`b` bghgcmomkcur`n nmk cgk`kebmtbmk pgkfmpm`mkkym.Zgktmbs`rmk ymke nìumt mnmhmo cgke`but pgr`kebmt bgiahgomk nmk stmknmrnpgrbgcimkemk cur`n tgrsgiut.

Zgktmbs`rmk luem cgcgrhubmk pgkeucpuhmk iubt` nmk nmtm pgkfmpm`mkcur`n nmhmc smtu tgcpao cmsm uktub cgktmbs`r pgcighmlmrmk nmk

pgcmomcmkkym.Iubt` nmk nmtm `k` nmpmt n`mci`h nmhmc igktub n`mhae, lurkmh, hgcimrmk bgrlm,partdahà nmk igigrmpm lgk`s ul`mk sgpgrt` ul`mk n`mekast`b

Zgktmbs`rmk nmhmc Zgkn`n`bmk Boms mnmhmo uktub cgcigr` cmbhucmt nmkemcimrmk tgktmke tmomp pgkeumsmmk cur`n nmhmc pghimem` bgcmo`rmksgpgrt` cgcimfm, cgkuh`s, cgke`rm nmk sgimem`kym.@m luem nmpmt cgkegsmk pukfm cmsmhmo ymke nòmnmp` cur`n nmk

cgrmkebm `ktgrvgks`, strmtge` pgkemlmrmk nmk pgkgcpmtmk ymke sgsum`cgke`but tmomp bgiahgomkkym



ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV =: | Z m e g

ZGCIGHMLMYMK

MVMV

Bgcmo`rmk 6 C <

bgcmo`rmk cgcimfm - cgcimfm cmbhucmt nmkhmtòmk & cgkfmr` imomk-imomk pgcighmlmrmk uktubcghmbubmk uhmkebml`.

bgcmo`rmk cgkuh`s - uktub cgkuh`s katm pghmlmrmknmk cghmbubmk hmtòmk.

bgcmo`rmk cgke`rm - pgkt`ke ime` cmtm pghmlmrmkymke cghìmtbmk b`rm-b`rm tgtmp` `m luem pgkt`kenmhmc bgo`nupmk sgomr`mk cgrgbm.

Bgcmo`rmk pgkeurusmk n`r` <

bgupmymmk cgkeurusbmk n`r` sgkn`r` (cgcigrsòbmk n`r` sgkn`r`, cgcmbm` pmbm`mk tmkpmimktumk, cmbmk ngkemk fmrm ymke igtuh nmk cmcpucgcgkuo` bgogknmb msms n`r` sgpgrt` cgciumke m`r.

supmym cur`n nmpmt cgklmem bgpgrìmn`mk n`r` sgkn`r` nmk igrupmym cgkeurusbmk n`r` sgkn`r` tmkpmpgrtahakemk armke hm`k.

Bgcmo`r

mk

sas`mh

^`kebmo hmbu ymke igrsgsum`mk uktub

igr`ktgrmbs` n` rucmo, sgbahmo nmkigrsmcm cmsymrmbmt.Bgupmymmk sas`mh `kn`v`nu ymke cmcpucgkfmpm` bglmymmk tmkpm cgkeemkeuarmke hm`k.

Mspgb nmhmc bgcmo r̀mk sas`mh -bgcmo`rmkigrbacuk`bms`, msgrt`d, igremuh,cgkyghgsm`bmk cmsmhmo.ûlumk pgktmbs`rmk - cgkegkmhpmst` cur`nymke cgcpukym` bghgcmomk nmhmcigrsas`mh.

cgcimktu cur`n nmhmc prasgs Z&Z nmkbgo`nupmk sgomr`mk cgrgbm.cgciahgobmk cgrgbm igr`ktgrmbs` nmkcgklmem ouiukemk mktmrm cmsymrmbmtngkemk im`b nmk igrsgsum`mk cgke`buteahakemk.



ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV == | Z m e g

cgh`imtbmk pgrmkem`, bghmbumk nmk fmrm sgsgarmke `tu cgcimwmpgkmcp`hmk n`r`kym.bmrgbtar msms igknm o`nup bgrmkm sgt`mp igknm o`nup n` nuk`m `k`cgcpukym` pgrwmtmbmk ymke tgrsgkn`r`.

Dmbtar utmcm ymke cgcpgkemruo` t`kebmo hmbu `mhmo cghmhu` pgrsgb`tmrmk.Umhmuimem`cmkmpuk, t`kebmo hmbu igruimo cgkgrus` pgcighmlmrmk.

Cgkeumsm` pgkeeukmmkhmcimke-hmcimke pgrtuturmkuktub igrbacuk`bms`

Cgcgrhubmk pgcmomcmks`ciah nmk cmbsun pgrbmtmmkuktub cgke`ktrgpgtms`bmkcmbhucmt nmk `ngm.

Bgcmo`rmk

imomsm

Bgcmo`rmk

cmtgcmt`b

Bgupmymmkcgkeumsm`pgkegtmoumktgktmke pgrbmrm

msms Cmtgcmt`bsgpgrt` kaciar nmk apgrms`cunmo

Zgkt`ke nmhmccgcimktu nmhmcpghmlmrmk nmkmbt`v`t` sgomr`mk

Bgcmo`rmk ^`kebmo Hmbu



=.: ZGKNMOWHWMK

Zgktmbs`rmk n`mkeemp sgimem` sumtu prasgs pgcighmlmrmk ymke cgrmkebuc`

mbt`v`t` cgkeourm ,̀ cgkeucpuh, cgrgban, cgcigr` sbar nmk cgktgrlgcmo cmbhucmt

tgktmke pgcighmlmrmk sgsgarmke cur̀ n ime` sgsumtu tulumk tgrtgktu (Hgcimem

Zgpgr`bsmmk Cmhmys`m, 9:::).

Zgktmbs`rmk ogknmbhmo n h̀mbsmkmbmk mpmi`hm sgsumtu bgcmo`rmk sghgsm`

n`lmhmkbmk igrnmsmrbmk Bgy Vtmeg Cmsmhmo Zgcighmlmrmk. Zgktmbs`rmk igrmsmsbmk

sgbahmo ogknmbhmo nmhmc igktub sucmt̀ d nmk darcmt`d. Oms`h bgrlm cur̀ n sgpgrt`

hgcimrmk bgrlm, dahà cur̀ n, pgcgromt`mk nmk ul̀ mk sgfmrm h`smk iahgo nèukmbmk

sgimem` imomk pgktmbs`rmk. Zgktmbs`rmk sgfmrm pgcgromt̀ mk ogknmbhmo n`sgrtmbmk

ngkemk sgkmrm` sgcmb. Vgemhm pgrmkfmkemk pgkemlmrmk nmk pgcighmlmrmk ogknmbhmo

nìumt igrsmcm Ymkfmkemk Zgkemlmrmk @kn`v`nu (YZ@). Euru cgkeeukmbmk oms`h

pgktmbs`rmk `k` uktub cgrmkfmke prasgs pgkemlmrmk nmk pgcighmlmrmk ymke

sgtgruskym.

Zgktmbs`rmk nmhmc Zgkn`n`bmk Boms mnmhmo uktub cgcigr` cmbhucmt nmk

emcimrmk tgktmke tmomp pgkeumsmmk cur̀ n nmhmc pghimem` bgcmo`rmk sgpgrt`

cgcimfm, cgkuh`s, cgke`rm nmk sgimem`kym. @m luem nmpmt cgkegsmk pukfm cmsmhmo

ymke nòmnmp` cur`n nmk cgrmkebm `ktgrvgks`, strmtge` pgkemlmrmk nmk pgkgcpmtmk

ymke sgsum` cgke`but tmomp bgiahgomkkym

Wktub cgklmhmkbmk pgktmbs`rmk tgromnmp sgsgarmke cur`n, ul`mk n`mekast`b

pgrhuhmo n`lmhmkbmk uktub cgkegtmou` tmomp bgupmymmk `ktghgbtumh sgsgarmke cur`n

sgfmrm tgrpgr`kf`. Wl`mk n`mekast`b mbmk n`lmhmkbmk bgpmnm cur`n sgtghmo cur`n sghgsm`

cgklmhmk` ul̀ mk smr`kemk ymke n h̀mbsmkmbmk tgrhgiò nmouhu ahgo euru uktub

cgkgktubmk s`tums` sgsgarmke cur`n smcm mnm hmymb mtmupuk t`nmb uktub tgrhìmt

ngkemk ul`mk n`mekast`b.

9.: NGD@K@V@ ZGK^MBV@YMK

ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV =9 | Z m e g



Zgktmbs`rmk nmpmt n`ngd̀ k`s`bmk sgimem` sumtu prasgs pgcighmlmrmk ymke

cgrmkebuc` mbt`v`t` cgkeourm`, cgkeucpuh, cgrgban, cgcigr` sbar nmk cgktgrlgcmo

cmbhucmt tgktmke pgcighmlmrmk sgsgarmke cur̀ n ime` sgsumtu tulumk tgrtgktu

(Hgcimem Zgpgr`bsmmk Cmhmys`m, 9:::). Vgtgruskym, cmbhucmt ymke n`pgrahgo` oms`h

pgktmbs`rmk mbmk n`rulub uktub cgcpgrim`b` bghgcmomk cur̀ n nmk cgk`kebmtbmk

pgkfmpm`mkkym. Zgktmbs`rmk ymke nìumt mnmhmo cgke`but pgr̀ kebmt bgiahgomk nmk

stmknmrn pgrbgcimkemk cur`n tgrsgiut. Zgktmbs`rmk luem cgcgrhubmk pgkeucpuhmk

iubt̀ nmk nmtm pgkfmpm`mk cur`n nmhmc smtu tgcpao cmsm uktub cgktmbs`r

pgcighmlmrmk nmk pgcmomcmkkym. Iubt` nmk nmtm `k` nmpmt n`mci`h nmhmc igktub

n`mhae, lurkmh, hgcimrmk bgrlm, partdahà nmk igigrmpm lgk`s ul`mk sgpgrt` ul`mk n`mekast`b.

Zgktmbs`rmk nmhmc Zgkn`n`bmk Boms mnmhmo uktub cgcigr` cmbhucmt nmk

emcimrmk tgktmke tmomp pgkeumsmmk cur̀ n nmhmc pghimem` bgcmo`rmk sgpgrt`

cgcimfm, cgkuh`s, cgke`rm nmk sgimem`kym. @m luem nmpmt cgkegsmk pukfm cmsmhmo

ymke nòmnmp` cur`n nmk cgrmkebm `ktgrvgks`, strmtge` pgkemlmrmk nmk pgkgcpmtmk

ymke sgsum` cgke`but tmomp bgiahgomkkym.Zgktmbs`rmk mnmhmo prasgs pgkeucpuhmk

cmbhucmt tgktmke pgrbgcimkemk nmk bgcmlumk cur`n ngkemk cgkeeukmbmk pghimem`

bmgnmo.@m cgrupmbmk sgimome`mk nmr`pmnm prasgs pgkemlmrmk nmk pgcighmlmrmk ymke

n`lmhmkbmk sgfmrm igrtgrusmk.@m ogknmbhmo n`hmbsmkmbmk sgfmrm t`nmb darcmh sghmrms

ngkemk Vgbsygk =0 Mbtm Zgkn`n`bmk =004.(Mbtm 77:)

Zgkmbs`rmk cgke`but Yakmhn H. ^myhar ( 9::: ) cgrulub bgpmnm prasgs

cgkeucpuh cmbhucmt ymke igrbm`tmk uktub cgcimktu `kn`v`nu cgciumt bgputusmk.

Zgkmbs`rmk pgkn`n`bmk nmk ps`bahae` bmkmb-bmkmb boms cghìmtbmk pgkeucpuhmk

cmbhucmt ymke igrbm`tmk nmhmc cgciumt bgputusmk igrbm`tmk ngkemk cmthmcmt nmk

ailgbt`d ymke igrsgsum`mk, strmtge` pgkemlmrmk nmk praermc pgkgcpmtmk.Cgkurut

Ymycakn ( 9::: ) puhm pgkmbs`rmk nèukmbmk sgimem` mhmt cgciumt bhms`d`bms` ime`

cgkgktubmk sgsgarmke `kn`v`nu `tu cgcpukym` bgpgrhumk boms mtmupuk t`nmb.Cmkmbmhm

Nmv`n Hmcigrt & Nmv`n H`kgs ( 9::: ) cgkymtmbmk pgkmbs`rmk mnmhmo prasgs

cgkeucpuh, cgktgrlgcmo, cgrgban nmk cgkeeukmbmk cmbhucmt cgkegkm` rgspak

pghmlmr bgpmnm tuems pgkn`n`bmk. Vgcgktmrm `tu , Cf Fhuomk ( =00> ), cgkngd`k`s`bmk




pgktmbs`rmk mnmhmo smtu prasgs s`stgcmt`b cgkeucpuh nmtm nmk cmbhucmt ymke rghgvmk

igrtulumk uktub cgciumt bgputusmk, pgcighmlmrmk nmk pgruknmkemk igrbm`tmk ngkemk

pgruktubmk pgrbo`ncmtmk boms. Cmkmbmhm Egmrogmrt & Egmrogmrt ( =00: ) puhm

cgkymtmbmk pgkmbs`rmk smtu prasgs ymke s`stgcmt̀ b uktub cgkeucpuh nmk

cgke`ktgprgtms`bmk nmtm uktub tulumk bgputusmk `ktgrvgks` nmk pgkgcpmtmk pghmlmr-

pghmlmr boms.

Cgke`but pgcmomcmk smym, pgktmbs`rmk nmhmc Zgkn`n`bmk Boms mnmhmo uktub

cgcigr` cmbhucmt nmk emcimrmk tgktmke tmomp pgkeumsmmk cur`n nmhmc pghimem`

bgcmo`rmk sgpgrt̀ cgcimfm, cgkuh`s, cgke`rm cgkegsmk pukfm cmsmhmo ymke

n`omnmp` cur`n nmk cgrmkebm `ktgrvgks`, strmtge` pgkemlmrmk nmk pgkgcpmtmk ymke

sgsum` cgke`but tmomp bgiahgomkkym. Vgfmrm bgsghuruomkkym pgktmbs`rmk igrtulumk

uktub cgkegkmhpmst̀ bgfgrnmsmk, patgks` cur`n ime` cgcpgrbubuobmk nmk

cgcpgrt̀ kebmtbmk pgrbgcimkemk cgrgbm sgrtm cgciahgobmk euru cgkemci h̀

t`knmbmk susuhmk ymke igrbgsmk nmhmc cgkegcimkebmk patgks` cur̀ n bg tmomp

apt`cuc nmhmc nacm`k baek`t`d,mdgbt`d nmk ps`bacatar.

6.: AILGB^@D ZGK^MBV@YMK

6.= Cgkegsmk pgrbgcimkemk cur`n sgfmrm cgkyghuruo

6.9 Cgkegkmh pmst` pghimem` patgks` cur`n sgfmrm cgkyghuruo

6.6 Cgkegkmh pmst` bghgi`omk nmk bgburmkemk cur`n nmhmc pgcighmlmrmk nmr`

sgcmsm bg sgcmsm.

6.> Cgrmkesmke mbt`v`t` cgke`but bgpgrhumk pgrbgcimkemk nmk pgrtuciuomk

cur`n

6.7 Cgkegsmk bgigrbgsmkmk pgkemlmrmk

6.4 Cgkegsmk pgrtuciuomk cur`n igrsgsum`mk ngkemk pgr`kebmt ucur

>.: HMZAYMK BML@MK

>.= Zrad`h cur`n

ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV => | Z m e g



KMCM < MUVOMY@]JGYY@F\OM I@K MUMKE BGFO@B

LMK^@KM < HGHMB@

IMKEVM < MVH@

MEMCM < ^@MNM

^MY@BO HMO@Y < =6.:=.=000

KA V@L@H BGHMO@YMK < ML 4?770

I@H. MN@B IGYMN@B < 6 AYMKE

MKMB PMKE BG < BGNWM

LGK@V BGZGYHWMK BOMV < IGYCMVMHMO ZGKNGKEMYMK

KA. BMN ABW < NN :>:657?

VGBAHMO < VB. ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV BWMK^MK, ZMOMKE

BGHMV < 4 LMPM IMUMO

MHMCM^ < BMCZWKE IWB@^ VGYAB, 940:: IMKNMY ^WK

YM\MB, ZMOMKE

KMCM IMZM < MUMKE BGFO@B I@K V@BMKE

ZGBGYLMMK < ZGKGYABM

ZGKNMZM^MK < YC =:::.::

7.: ZGYBGCIMKEMK CWY@N

7.= Zgrbgcimkemk Nmr` Mspgb D`z`bmh




Mwsomr`qJGrr`fzom mtmu hgiò cgsrm ngkemk pmkee`hmk Gr`f mnmhmo cgrupmbmk

sgarmke bmkmb-bmkmb ymke n`bmtgear`bmk sgimem` bmkmb-bmkmb igrcmsmhmo

pgkngkemrmk. Nmr` mspgb d`z`bmh, bmkmb-bmkmb `k` cgcpukym` f`r`-f`r` d`z`bmh ymke bgcms

nmk cgkmr`b sgpgrt̀ bmkmb-bmkmb karcmh ymke hm`k. Bmkmb-bmkmb `k` luem

cgcpmcgrbmk f`r`-f`r` bgigrsòmk ymke sgsum` ngkemk tmomp ucurkym. ^`nmb sgpgrt`

bmkmb-bmkmb karcmh ymke hm`k, Gr`f n`nmpmt` hgiò subm uktub igrsgkn`r`mk nmk t`nmb

egcmr uktub igrsas`mh ngkemk rmbmk-rmbmk karcmh ymke sgus`m ngkemkkym. Omh `k` lghms

cgkuklubbmk imomwm Gr`f hgiò sghgsm uktub igremuh ngkemk bmkmb-bmkmb ymke

igrcmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk sgpgrt`kym.

Gr`f cgkemhmc` cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk sglmb bgf`h hme`. Lgk`s bgfmfmtmkkym `mhmo

lgk`s Fmfmt Imome`mk ^mkeempmk ( Zgrfgpt`vg Ngmdkgss) `m`tu Bgfmfmtmk tgrlmn`

n`sgimibmk ahgo cmsmhmo smrmd pgkngkemrmk pmnm imome`mk aremk nmhmc tgh`kem.

Bmtgear` bgfmfmtmk pgkngkemrmk ymke n`mhmc` ahgo Gr`f `mhmo pmnm tmomp tgrub

(pradaukn). F`r̀ -f`r` bgfmfmtmk pmnm tmomp tgrub `mhmo pmnm tmomp `k`, bgo`hmkemk

pgkngkemrmk Gr`f mnmhmo mktmrm 0: nI bg mtms. Zmnm tmomp `k`, Gr`f t`nmb nmpmt

cgkngkemr mpm-mpm iuky` cghm`kbmk ngkemk cgcmbm` mhmt imktu pgkngkemrmk (MIN).

7.= Zgrbgcimkemk Nmr` Mspgb Baek`t`d

Zgrbgcimkemk baek`t`d `k` iahgo n`bm`tbmk ngkemk fmrm o`nup nmk bgmnmmk

pgrsgb`tmrmk cur`n `tu sgkn`r`. @k` nmpmt n`hòmt nmr` sge` pgcmbmkmk Gr`f n`cmkm `mkym

t`nmb cgkfubup` nmk t`nmb sg`cimke. Umhmupuk Gr`f t`keemh n` msrmcm, kmcuk n`m t`nmb

cmbmk cmbmkmk ymke n`sgn`mbmk ahgo pòmb msrmcm. Ahgo `tu, n`s`k` smym iahgo

cgciumt bgs`cpuhmk imomwm pgrbgcimkemk baek`t d̀ cgrulub bgpmnm imem`cmkm

bmkmb-bmkmb tgrsgiut cgcmomc` nmk cgkeurus nuk`m cgrgbm sgkn`r`. @k` tgrcmsub

bgcmo`rmk cgkmmbuh, cgky`cpmk nmk cgke`kemt` cmbhucmt, bhms`d`bms`, cgkngd`k`s`bmk

nmk sgimem`kym. Bghmcimtmk pgrbgcimkemk imomsm bmkmb-bmkmb igrcmsmhmo

pgkngkemrmk turut cghmcimtbmk pgrbgcimkemk baek`t`d cgrgbm.

Igr`but cgrupmbmk pgkfmpm`mk Gr`f sgwmbtu igrmnm nmhmc tmouk 4 Lmym Imwmo (9:=9)<




CM^M ZGHMLMYMK Iuhmk Dgirumr` Iuhmk Cg`

% Ergn % Ergn

Imomsm Cghmyu Zgkuh`smk ? G =: G

Imomsm Cghmyu Zgcmomcmk 9: G 69 N

Imomsm @keegr`s 69 N 9? G

Cmtgcmt`b 6? N >9 FVm`ks 94 G 6: N

Zgkn`n`bmk Carmh 7: F >: N

Lmnumh Bgputusmk mbmngc`b rgspakngk.

Igrnmsmrbmk lmnumh n` mtms, nmpmt hòmt imomwm Gr`f smkemt hgcmo nmhmc

cgci`km mymt nmhmc cmtm pghmlmrmk Imomsm Cghmyu Zgkuh`smk ngkemk omkym

cgknmpmt ?% pmnm iuhmk Dgirumr` nmk ermd cuhm km`b sgn`b`t bgpmnm =:% pmnm iuhmk

Cg`. ^`nmb burmke luem nmhmc cmtm pghmlmrmk ymke hm`k sgpgrt` Imomsm Cghmyu

Zgcmomcmk nmk Imomsm @keegr`s. Umhmupuk ngkemk bgputusmk ymke sgngc`b`mk, Gr`f

cgrupmbmk pghmlmr ymke igrlmym cgknmouhu` pghmlmr-pghmlmr hm`k n` nmhmc bghmskym.

Igrnmsmrbmk lmnumh tgrsgiut luem, nmpmt n`rucusbmk imomwm Gr`f cgcpukym` cmsmhmo

nmhmc cmtm pghmlmrmk ymke cghìmtbmk imomsm bgrmkm n`m iahgo cghmbubmk ul`mk nmhmc

cmtm pghmlmrmk Cmtgcmt`b ngkemk hgiò im`b igrimkn`ke suilgb-suilgb imomsm.

7.9 Zgrbgcimkemk Nmr` Mspgb Vasà-Gcas`

Gr`f cgrupmbmk sgarmke cur`n ymke smkemt fgr`m bgt`bm igrmnm n` sgbahmo. N`m

luem cunmo cgsrm ngkemk bgkmhmk imru nmk cunmo bgtmwm. Kmcuk ige`tu, mnm

bgt`bmkym, n`m mbmk igrmnm nmhmc bgmnmmk ymke smkemt curuke. Cgkurut bmtm

pgcimktu pgkeurusmk cur`n (ZZC) nmk euru bghms Gr`f, n`m mbmk cgkuklubbmk gcas`

ymke t`nmb stmi`h sgb`rmkym igh`mu cgkemci`h uimt. Wktub cmbhucmk, Gr`f cgcpukym`

cmsmhmo bgsòmtmk ymke hm`k `m t̀u cgkeo`nmp pgkymb`t smwmk. Ahgo `tu, n`m mbmk

cgkemci`h uimt smwmk sgpgrt` ymke n`mrmobmk ahgo nabtar igigrmpm bmh` nmhmc smtuc`keeu. Mpmi`hm bgmnmmk `k` tgrlmn`, hmz`ckym Gr`f mbmk hmcimt cgkuklubbmk rgspaks

nmk t`knmb imhms mpmi`hm nmhmc sgsumtu pgri`kfmkemk. N`m luem bghòmtmk sgpgrt̀

igrbomymh mtmu tgrmwmke-mwmke n` nuk`m hm`k sgb`rmkym imru cgkemci`h uimt. Ngkemk

`tu, `mkym cgklglmsbmk Gr`f uktub cgcigr` tucpumk ymke sgpgkuokym sgwmbtu euru

sgnmke cgkemlmr. Omh ymke sgimh`bkym puhm mbmk igrhmbu l`bm n`m t`nmb cgkemci h̀ uimt




bgrmkm n`m mbmk igrtubmr cgklmn` sgarmke cur`n ymke smkemt mbt`d mpmi`hm n` nmhmc

bghms. Umhmupuk n`m smkemt mbt`d bgt`bm n` nmhmc bghms, `tu t`nmb igrcmbkm n`m

cgrupmbmk sgarmke cur`n ymke kmbmh. Gr`f lghms cgcpukym` pgrsakmh`t` ymke rmcmo

nmk egcmr igrbacuk`bms` ngkemk armke-armke n` sgbgh`h`kekym ymke n`rmsmbmk sghmcmt

igrsmcm.

7.6 Hmparmk Bgs`omtmk

Nabtar cgkegsmobmk imomwm Gr`f cgcpukym` cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk `m`tu pmnm

tmomp tgrub (pradaukn). Ahgo n`sgimibmk pgkegsmomk tgrsgiut, Gr`f n`tgcpmtbmk uktub

ighmlmr n` sgbahmo pgkn`n`bmk boms. Vghm`k nmr`pmnm cgcpukym` cmsmhmo igrbgkmmk

ngkemk pgkngkemrmk, Gr`f luem cgkeo`nmp smtu hme` pgkymb`t `m`tu pgkymb`t smwmk.

Mpmi`hm pgkymb`t tgrsgiut cgkygrmke, Gr`f t`nmb sgnmrbmk n`r` nmk sgpmruo imome`mk

imnmkkym mbmk igrmnm nmhmc bgmnmmk ymke bmbu. Mnm bmhmkym luem imnmk Gr`f mbmk

tgrogktmb-ogktmb. Vgrmkemk smwmk `k` mbmk cgkygimibmk Gr`f t`nmb nmpmt igrkmdms

ngkemk sgcpurkm. Zgrkmo luem Gr`f cuktmo sgwmbtu n`sgrmke smwmk bgt`bm igrmnm n`

sgbahmo.

4.: CMVMHMO PMKE N@OMNMZ@

Igrnmsmrbmk lmnumh n` mtms cgkuklubbmk pgkfmpm`mk mbmngc`b Gr`f sgwmbtu

igrmnm n` nmhmc tmouk 4 Lmym Imwmo tmouk 9:=9. Igrnmsmrbmk lmnumh tgrsgiut, smym

nmpmt cgciumt smtu bgs`cpuhmk imomwm Gr̀ f lghms cgcpukym` cmsmhmo nmhmc

bgcmo`rmk igrimomsm. Cghmhu` tgcuiumh nmk pgcgromt`mk ymke smym hmbubmk tgromnmpn`r`kym, smym nmpmt` imomwm Gr`f igkmr-igkmr cgcpukym` cmsmhmo nmhmc cgci`km

mymt pgkngb nmk luem cgcimfm. Vgpgrt` faktao, mpmi`hm n`suruo uktub cgcimfm

sgpatake mymt ngkemk cgkeeukmbmk imomsm `symrmt, Gr`f mbmk cgkemci`h cmsm ymke

hmcm uktub cgcimfm bgrmkm n`m hgi`o fgkngruke uktub cgcimtmke subu bmtm mtmu puk

nmhmc grt` bmtm hm`k, n`m mbmk cgkeglm ourud smtu pgrsmtu ngkemk cgkeeukmbmk imomsm

ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV =? | Z m e g



`symrmt sgwmbtu cgcimfm. Bgmnmmk `k` t`nmb cgkuklubbmk pgrbgcimkemk ymke ige`tu

im`b uktub sgarmke cur`n ^mouk 4. Nmhmc us`m ige`tu, Gr`f sgwmlmrkym sunmo cmcpu

uktub tgrus cgcimfm pgrbmtmmk-pgrbmtmmk pgkngb ngkemk cgkeeukmbmk imomsm

`symrmt ymke igtuh tmkpm pgrhu cgkeglm sgpgrt` cmkm rmbmk-rmbmkkym ymke hm`k.

Vgtgruskym, mnmhmo cmsmhmo nmr̀ pmnm sge` bghmkfmrmk uktub igrimomsm. Gr`f

cgcpukym` cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk ymke smkemt tgrub, lmn` n`m t`nmb nmpmt cgkngkemr

sgimrmke iuky` cghm`kbmk cgcmbm` mhmt imktu ngkemr (MIN). Ahgo `tu, pgkeumsmmk

imomsm Gr`f smkemt tgromn. Gr`f luem t`nmb nmpmt cgkeumsm` pgkeeukmmk imomsm

`symrmt ngkemk hmkfmr. Vgimem` faktao, l`bm n`m `ke`k cgkemtmbmk sgsumtu bgpmnm euru,

n`m mbmk cgcmkee`h f`beu igruhmke-uhmke bmh` sgo`keemhmo n`m iahgo cgciumt `symrmt

ymke cgkymtmbmk bgogknmbkym.

Vghm`k `tu, Gr`f luem cgkemhmc` cmsmhmo nmhmc prmecmt`b ymke cmkm n`m

cgkeomnmp` cmsmhmo uktub cgkeeukmbmk imomsm nmhmc baktgbs ouiukemk sas`mh.

Vgimem` mbìmt, Gr`f mbmk cgcpukym` cmsmhmo nmhmc cgkemci h̀ e h̀`rmk uktub

igr`symrmt mtmu igrbacuk`bms` nmhmc sgsumtu pgriumhmk mtmu t`nmb nmpmt cgkuklubbmk

f`r`-f`r` mtmu tmknm c`kmt cgrgbm tgktmke pgrbmrm ymke nìumhbmk. Zgrbmrm `k` sunmo puk

nmpmt n`hòmt ahgo smym bgrmkm Gr`f hgiò fgkngruke uktub cghòmt tgcpmt hm`k mpmi`hm

sgsgarmke igr`symrmt nmk cgcigr`bmk cmbhuc imhms ymke burmke hae`b uktub n`tgr`cm

mbmh.

Gr`f turut cgkemhmc` cmsmhmo nmhmc bacpakgk cardahae`, n` cmkm n`m t`nmb

nmpmt cgkeeukmbmk `ciuomk nmhmc pgrbmtmmk ngkemk igtuh. Vghm`k `tu, n`m luem

cgcpukym` cmsmhmo pgkeeukmmk ourud igsmr nmk ourud bgf`h n` pmkebmh nmk tgkemo

pgrbmtmmk. Omh `k` sgfmrm t`nmb hmkesuke cgklglmsbmk cmrbmo ymke n`pgrahgo` nmhmc

bgrtms pgkuh`smk.

Cmsmhmo tgrmbo`r ymke n`bgkmh pmst` mnmhmo pgkeumsmmk ymke rgknmo nmhmc

cgcmomc` sgsumtu pgrbmtmmk mtmu pgt`bmk bmrmkemk nmk luem mymt pgkngb nmhmc

pgkemlmrmk ymke n`smcpm`bmk. Cmsmhmo `k` igrbm`t rmpmt ngkemk sgcmkt`b n` cmkm

sgsumtu cmbkm nmhmc pgrbmtmmk mnmhmo mcmt pgkt`ke ime` sgsgarmke `kn`v`nu.




5.: WL@MK N@MEKAV^@B NMK MKMH@V@V WL@MK N@MEKAV^@B

Vgpgrt̀ ymke tghmo n`cmbhucbmk, Gr`f luem cgkeo`nmp pgkymb`t smwmk n`

smcp`ke cmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk. Zgkymb`t smwmk tgrlmn` mpmi`hm mh`rmk fms ghgbtr`b

nmhmc atmb sgsgarmke tgremkeeu. I`msmkym `m igrhmbu sgfmrm tìm-tìm nmk cgklglmsbmk

dukes` smrmd n` imome`mk atmb. Ahgo `tu, pgkfmpm`mk mbmngc`b Gr`f sgigkmrkym

tgremkeeu n`sgimibmk ahgo pgkymb`t smwmkkym `tu. Cgkurut Gk Karo`somc, `m`tu euru

bghms tmouk 4 Lmym Mtms, igh`mu cgkemtmbmk imomwm bgmnmmk baek`t`d Gr`f sgcmb`k

cgrasat nmr` omr` bg omr`. Dmbtar pgkemci`hmk uimt smwmk luem tghmo cgcigr`bmk bgsmk

kgemt`d ymke smcm tgromnmp atmbkym.

Nmr`pmnm sge` pgcimfmmk Gr`f sgigkmrkym cgcpukym` cmsmhmo ymke ige`tu

cgr`smubmk n` cmkm n`m cmsò cgciumt `symrmt glmmk sgighuc n`m cgciumt `symrmt

pgrbmtmmk sgfmrm pgkuo. Bgmnmmk `k` t`nmb sgpmtutkym tgrlmn` uktub sgsgarmke bmkmb-

bmkmb igrcmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk ymke igrmnm nmhmc tmouk 4.

Bmkmb-bmkmb ymke cgkemhmc` cmsmhmo sgcmkt`b memb submr uktub cgcmomc`

cmbsun pgt`bmk, pgrgkeemk, pgrbmtmmk nmhmc pgkemlmrmk ymke n`smcpm`bmk. Cgrgbm

luem cgkemhmc` cmsmhmo uktub cgcmomc` s`cpuhmk imomsm mtmu imomsm b`msmk.

Vghm`k nmr`pmnm `tu, bmkmb-bmkmb ymke cgkeomnmp` cmsmhmo `k` mbmk o`hmke c`kmt mtmu

tucpumk bgpmnm pghmlmrmk bgrmkm cgrgbm t`nmb nmpmt cgcmomc` cmbkm nmk baksgp

pgkymcpm`mk cmbhucmt imomsm.

Bgmnmmk tgrsgiut ymke n`mhmc` ahgo Gr`f luem cgklglmsbmk tucpumkkym nmhmc

cgcigr`bmk cmbhuc imhms sgpgrt` ymke n`bgogknmb`. ^gcpao ymke n`pgrhubmk ahgokym

uktub cgcigr`bmk rgspaks mnmhmo t`nmb karcmh i`mrpuk uktub sgarmke bmkmb-bmkmb

ymke cgcpukym` bgfmfmtmk.

Cmsmhmo ymke pmh`ke bgtmrm nmk cgci`cimkebmk mnmhmo bgt`nmbupmymmk Gr`fuktub cgcimfm sgfmrm karcmh nmk iubmk ngkemk cgcimtmke subu bmtm hme`. Omh `k`

mnmhmo bgrmkm `m cgcigr`bmk `cpmb ymke kgemt`d tgromnmp bghmkfmrmk pgcimfmmkkym.

Vghm`k nmr`pmnm `tu, `m luem cgklglmsbmk prgstms` mbmngc`bkym cgcmknmkebmk n`m

smkemt hmcimt nmhmc cgcimfm. Lustgru `tu, n`m mbmk cgkemci h̀ cmsm ymke hgiò

imkymb nmr`pmnm rmbmk-rmbmk hm`k uktub cgkyghgsm`bmk sgsumtu samhmk.

ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV 9: | Z m e g



?.: YWCWVMK NMK OWYM@MK OMV@H MKMH@V@V WL@MK N@MEKAV^@B

Vgtghmo sghgsm` cgklmhmkbmk ul`mk pgktmbs`rmk Imomsm Cghmyu ime` cur`n ymke

igrkmcm Mwsomr`qJGrr`fzom, mtmu hgiò cgsrm ngkemk pmkee`hmk Gr`f, smym tghmo

cgciumt mkmh`s`s igrnmsmrbmk oms`h ul`mk ymke n`pgrahgo`. Vmym tghmo cghmbubmk tèm

lgk`s Wl`mk N`mekast`b Imomsm Cghmyu `m`tu ymke pgrtmcm cgkuh`s ourud igsmr nmk ourud

bgf`h igrnmsmrbmk `symrmt euru, ymke bgnum cgkuh`s subu bmtm BT, BT+BT, BT+BT+BT,

T+BT nmk ymke bgtèm cgciumt pmnmkmk emcimr nmk pgrbmtmmk.

Igrnmsmrbmk pgktmbs`rmk Imomsm Cghmyu ymke tghmo nìumt, smym cgknmpmt`

imomwm Gr`f cgcpukym` igigrmpm bghgiòmk nmk bghgcmomk. Gr`f igrlmym cgklmwmi

bgsgcum samhmk ymke nìgr`bmk. Kmcuk ige`tu, tgrnmpmt imkymb samhmk ymke t`nmb

cmcpu n`lmwmi ahgo Gr`f sgfmrm igtuh. Ime` ul`mk ymke pgrtmcm `m`tu cgkuh`s ourud

igsmr nmk ourud bgf`h n` nmhmc batmb ymke n`sgn`mbmk. Vmym tghmo cgciumt `symrmt

ourud bgcun`mk cgc`ktmkym uktub cgkuh`s ourud tgrsgiut n` nmhmc batmb ymke

n`sgn`mbmk. Gr`f Igrlmym cgkuh`s ourud igsmr nmk ourud bgf`h ngkemk igtuh. Igrnmsmrbmk

nmr`pmnm lmwmpmk ymke nìgr`bmk ahgo Gr̀ f nmhmc samhmk pgrtmcm `k ,̀ smym tghmo

cgciumt mkmh`s`s imomwmsmkym Gr`f cgcpukym` bgupmymmk cgkuh`s nmk dmomc mpm

ymke n``symrmtbmk ahgo smym. Omh `k` cukeb`k n`sgimibmk ahgo Gr`f sunmo iahgo

cgkeumsm` `symrmt ourud nmk tghmo i`msm cgkuh`s ourud igsmr nmk ourud bgf`h ngkemk

igtuh. Kmcuk ige`tu, Gr`f cgcpukym` sgn`b`t cmsmhmo nmhmc cgkuh`s ourud igsmr nmk

ourud bgf`h sgfmrm smcm igsmr mtmu sgrmemc.

Wl`mk bgnum `m`tu cgkuh`s subu bmtm BT, BT+BT, BT+BT+BT nmk T+BT, Gr`f

t`nmb cgcigr` oms`h ymke im`b. Gr`f t`nmb nmpmt cgklmwmi samhmk ymke nìgr` ngkemk

igtuh. N`m cmsò hme` t`nmb nmpmt cgkeumsm` subu bmtm ymke cgkemknuke` BT nmk

BT+BT. Oms`h ul`mk bgtèm `m`tu cgciumt pmnmkmk emcimr nmk pgrbmtmmk, n`m iahgo

cgkuh`s ourud-ourud tgtmp` cgcpukym` cmsmhmo nmhmc cgkuh`s sm`z nmk ar`gktms` ourud

ymke igtuh.

Vgfmrm bgsghuruomkkym, ul`mk pgktmbs`rmk Imomsm Cghmyu ymke n`lmhmkbmk bg

mtms Gr`f `k` cgkuklubbmk imomwm Gr`f t`nmb cgkeumsm` bgcmo`rmk-bgcmo`rmk ymke

ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV 9= | Z m e g



tghmo n`mlmrbmk ahgo euru imomsmkym sgtmbmt `k`. Zgrbm`tmk mktmrm bgo`nupmk sgomr`mk

nmk pgkemlmrmk euru igrbgcukeb`kmk mbmk cgcigr`bmk pgcmomcmk nmk pgkeubuomk

ymke hgiò igrbgsmk bgpmnm Gr`f. Vgpmklmke ul`mk n`lmhmkbmk, Gr`f cgkuklubbmk c`kmt

ymke pgkuo nmk cgke`but` mrmomk ymke nìgr`bmk ahgo euru ngkemk im`b sgbmh`.

0.: FMNMKEMK WK^WB CGKEM^MV@ BGHGCMOMK /CMVMHMO CWY@N

Ime` cgkeghmbbmk Gr`f cgkemhmc` cmsmhmo imomsm ymke hgiò tgrub hme` pmnm

cmsm mbmk nmtmke, sgsumtu omrus n`hmbubmk supmym `mkym nmpmt nìgknuke. Zgrmkmk

ìu impm nmk euru ymke n`cm`kbmk mnmhmo smkemt pgkt`ke cgcmknmkebmk num

eahakemk `k` cgrupmbmk eahakemk ymke pmh`ke rmpmt ngkemk Gr`f.

Hmkebmo pgrtmcm ymke iahgo n`hmbubmk mnmhmo ngkemk cgcpgrimkymbbmk

mbt`v`t` imfmmk. Bmgnmo cgcimfm luem cgst`hmo igtuh `m`tu ngkemk cgkeulmrbmk tgrus

pgrbmtmmk tgrsgiut nmk iubmk ngkemk cgkeglm. Euru mtmu ìu impm iahgo

cgkeeukmbmk bmn `cimsmk ymke tgrnmpmt pgrbmtmmk nmk n`tuklubbmk bgpmnm Gr`f.

Mpmi`hm n`c`ktm uktub cgcimfmbmk bmn tgrsgiut, Gr`f cgst`hmo nìgr`tmou uktub t`nmb

cgkeglm nmk tgrus cgke`symrmtbmk pgrbmtmmk tgrsgiut. Hmt̀ omk `k` cgst̀ n`hmbubmk

sgt`mp omr` nmk n`hmbubmk sgfmrm baks`stgk.

N` smcp`ke n`mlmr uktub cgcimfm ngkemk tgbk`b ymke igtuh, euru luem iahgo

cghgtmbbmk emcimr pmnm bmn `cimsmk tgrsgiut mtmu cgcigr`bmk pgkgrmkemk baksgp

igrnmsmrbmk pgrbmtmmk ymke n``symrmtbmkkym `tu. Cghmhu` tgbk`b `k`, Gr`f mbmk hgiò

cgcmomc` mpm ymke n``symrmt igrimkn`ke omkym cgciumt `symrmt tmkpm cgkegtmou`

cmbkm pgrbmtmmk.

Huknstggk (=050) tghmo cgkngd`k`s`bmk imomwm cgkngkemr mnmhmo sgimem` smtu

prasgs c`knm ymke cgcigr` cmbkm bgpmnm imomsm pgrtuturmk. Ahgo `tu, dmbtar

rmkesmkemk pgkngkemrmk luem mnmhmo mcmt pgkt`ke nmhmc cgcigr` `ktgrvgks` bgpmnm

Omb`c supmym cmsmhmo imomsmkym nmpmt n`mtms`. @iu impm tgrutmcmkym, pgrhu imkymb

igr`symrmt nmk igrbacuk`bms` ngkemk Gr`f nmk `symrmt `tu cgst`hmo `symrmt ymke

igrcmbkm. Mpmi`hm Omb`c sgkt`msm cgknmpmt `kput nmr`pmnm armke sgbgh`h`kekym, n`m




mbmk cgklmn` cuhm uktub ms`c`hms` nmk mnmptms` tgromnmp igknm-igknm ymke igrbm`tmk

ngkemk n`r`kym. Fmrm hm`k ymke iahgo n`hmbubmk ahgo Gr`f mnmhmo ngkemk cgkngkemr

imomk rmkesmkemk sgpgrt` fgr`tm bmkmb-bmkmb ymke n`̀ symrmtbmk ahgo euru, nmk

bgcun`mkkym Gr`f puhm n`c`ktm uktub cgkfgr`tmbmk bgcimh` fgr`tm ymke n``symrmtbmk

ahgo euru n` omnmpmk bghms.

Zgrbmrm hm`k ymke iahgo n`hmbubmk ahgo euru n` sgbahmo mnmhmo ngkemk cgciumt

hmbakmk n` cmkm `m iahgo cgcimktu Gr`f uktub hgi`o cgcmomc` sgsumtu pgrbmrm nmk

luem cgkeemhmbbmk ‟turk tmb`ke‐ mtmu puk e`h`rmk uktub igrbacuk`bms` ngkemk igtuh. Omh

`k` pgkt`ke bgrmkm Gr`f luem igromb uktub n`hmymk sgpgrt` eahakemk karcmh ymke hm`k.

Ahgo `tu, Gr`f pgrhu tmou i`hm cmsm uktub igrbacuk`bms`, mpm ymke pgrhu n``symrmtbmkkym

nmk ngkemk s`mpm n`m igrbacuk`bms` supmym hmrms imomsm ymke n`eukmbmk luem sgsum`.

Vgimem` bgs`cpuhmk, imomsm cgrupmbmk smtu mspgb ymke smkemt igsmr

pgrmkmkkym nmhmc bgo`nupmk. Cmkus`m ymke t`nmb nmpmt igrimomsm mnmhmo eahakemk

ymke smkemt rue` ahgo `tu b`tm sgimem` pgkn`n`b cgst`hmo cgcm`kbmk pgrmkmk nmhmc

cgcimktu cgrgbm ymke cgcgrhubmk imktumk sgige`k .̀ B`tm luem cgst`hmo cgkegtmou`

lgk`s-lgk`s cmsmhmo ngkemk cgciumt pgcgromt`mk nmk ul`mk ime` cgkeucpuh

cmbhucmt ymke iahgo cgcimktu nmhmc cgcigr` `ktgrvgks` mwmh bgpmnm cgrgbm.




YGDHGBV@

Zgktmbs`rmk nmhmc Zgkn`n`bmk Boms n`hmbsmkmbmk ime` cgnmpmtbmk emcimrmk

tgromnmp tmomp pgkeumsmmk cur̀ n nmhmc pghimem` bgcmo`rmk sgpgrt` cgcimfm,

cgkuh`s, cgke`rm nmk sgimem`kym. @m luem nmpmt cgkegsmk pukfm cmsmhmo ymke

n`omnmp` cur`n nmk cgrmkebm `ktgrvgks`, strmtge` pgkemlmrmk nmk pgkgcpmtmk ymke

sgsum` cgke`but tmomp bgiahgomkkym.

Cghmhu` ul`mk pgktmbs`rmk, euru nmpmt cgkegkmhpmst` mpmbmo cmsmhmo sgigkmr

cur̀ n n` pgr`kebmt mwmh. Omh `k` sgfmrm t`nmb hmkesuke mbmk cgcunmobmk euru

cgrmkfmke bglmymmk praermc pgcuh`omk bghmb.

Nmhmc baktgbs pgktmbs`rmk t`kebmo hmbu, bgmnmmk nmk sumsmkm sgbahmo luem

bmnmkebmhm cgk`ciuhbmk bgmnmmk ymke t`nmb sghgsm nmk cgkygimibmk t`kebmo hmbu

igrcmsmhmo. Bghms ymke tgrhmhu rmcm`, mhmt bghgkebmpmk ymke t`nmb cgkfubup`, sumsmkm

n` nmhmc bghms ymke t`nmb tgrmput`b, mhmt imktu cgkemlmr ymke t`nmb fubup, emkeeumk

nmr` humr nmk bgmnmmk sgbahmo ymke t`nmb sgcpurkm nmr` sge` bgcunmomk msms.

ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV 9> | Z m e g



Bgsgcumkym `k` iahgo cgk`ciuhbmk bgegh`smomk nmk cgkemkeeu bghmkfmrmk

pgrlmhmkmk bghms.

Ahgo `tu, pgknmpmt-pgknmpmt nmk bml`mk nmr` igigrmpm tabao tgrbgkmh iahgo

n`lmn`bmk sgimem` imomk rulubmk ahgo pòmb sgbahmo ime` cgrmkfmke strmtge`-strmtge`

uktub cgk`kebmtbmk hme` bgigrbgsmkmk ime` cgk`kebmtbmk bgcmo`rmk imomsm nmk

cmtgcmt`b sgrtm cgkemtms` t`kebmo hmbu igrcmsmhmo nmk prgstms` cur`n-cur`n nmk

mbmngc`b n` sgbahmo.

Ahgo ngc`b`mk, pgktmbs`rmk omrushmo n l̀mhmkbmk ngkemk hgiò bgrmp nmk

tgrsusuk, i`lmb nmk tgrmtur memr `m nmpmt cgk`kebmtbmk bgcmo`rmk ymke sgpmtutkym

n`pgrahgo` ahgo cur`n-cur`n nmk t`nmb cgcimktutbmk mtmu cgkemkeeu prasgs

pgkemlmrmk nmk pgcighmlmrmk n` nmhmc i`h`b nmrlmo. Cghmhu` bgigrbgsmkmk s`stgc

pgcighmlmrmk ymke igrbgsmk mbmk cgcpgrfgpmtbmk pgrbgcimkemk pgcighmlmrmk

cur`n-cur`n n` sgbahmo.

Zgrtmcm sgbmh` smym pmklmtbmk rmsm bgsyuburmk pmnm Pmke Cmom Gsm bgrmkm

ngkemk `z`k nmk h`cpmo burk`m-Kym nmpmt smym cgky`mpbmk tuemsmk bgrlm bursus

pmklmke `k` pmnm cmsm ymke n`tgtmpbmk. Umhmupuk oms`hkym t`nmb sgigrmpm, tgtmp` smym

igrmsm smkemt imkeem bgrmkm nmpmt cgky`mpbmk tuemsmk `k` tgpmt pmnm cmsmkym.

Vgtghmo omcp`r gcpmt c`keeu prasgs cgkeoms`hbmk bgrlm bursus ymke nìgr`,

cmbm `k`hmo ymke nmpmt smym oms`hbmk nmhmc tuemsmk bgrlm bursus pmklmke ime` cmtm

pghmlmrmk Zgktmbs r̀mk nmhmc Zgkn`n`bmk Boms. Imkymb `kput ymke igreukm nmk

igrcmkdmmt nmpmt n`pgrahgo uktub n`prmbt`bbmk nmhmc bgo`nupmk sgomr`mk.

Zmnm omr` pgrtmcm smym cgkgr`cm tuemsmk `k`, smym cgkeomnmp` cmsmhmo uktub

cgcmomc` bgogknmb samhmk tgtmp` sgtghmo nìgr` pgkgrmkemk ahgo pgksymrmo

pgci`ci`ke `m`tu F`b Yaomkm I`kt` Hmt, smym cuhm` dmomc pgrbmrm ymke n`bgogknmbàhgo samhmk. Zgcgrahgomk smym nmhmc cgknmpmt cmbhucmt tghmo cgkygimibmk smym

burmke sgkmke omt` uktub cghmbubmk pgrbgrlmmk hm`k tgtmp` ngkemk bgcunmomk ymke

nìgr`bmk nmk pgkgrmkemk ymke nìgr`bmk ahgo pgksymrmo pgci`ci`ke tghmo

cgklmn`bmk smym hgiò igrmk` nmhmc cghmbubmk bgrlm bursus `k`. Zgkomktmrmk bgrlm




bursus `k` smym tghmo igrusmom uktub cgklmn`bmk bgrlm bursus `k` nòmktmr pmnm cmsm

ymke tghmo n` tgtmpbmk.

Bgsgcp`tmk cmsm nmk bgrlm luem turut cgklmn`bmk smym bgfghmrumk gcas` nmhmc

cgky`mpbmk tuemsmk `k`. Nmr̀ sge` pgcgrahgomk `hcu, sgn`b`t sgimkymb smym nmpmt

cgcmomc` tgktmke t`kebmo hmbu bmkmb- bmkmb igrbgpgrhumk boms `m`tu bmkmb-bmkmb

igrcmsmhmo pgkngkemrmk, f`r`- f`r` ymke tgrnmpmt pmnm cgrgbm, cmsmhmo pgcighmlmrmk

msms sgrtm bgcmo`rmk sas`mh cgrgbm. Vmym luem nmpmt cgkegtmou` fmrm- fmrm uktub

cgcan`d`bms`bmk t`kebmo hmbu nmk pgcighmlmrmk msms bmkmb- bmkmb igrcmsmhmo

pgkngkemrmk.

Bgsuh`tmk ymke smym mhmc` sgpmklmke cgky`mpbmk tuemsmk, cgkemlmr smym memr

igrsmimr ngkemk sgemhm cmsmhmo ymke t`ciuh. Umhmu imem`cmkmpuk, `tu sgcum t`nmb

cgcmtmobmk sgcmkemt smym cmhmo `m cgkemlmr grt` bgsmimrmk memr bgrlm ymke

nòms`hbmk `k` n`tgr`cm. Cghmhu` tuemsmk `k` smym igrpgemke pmnm pr`ks`p ‘ igrmb`t bg

ouhu, igrgkmke- rgkmke bgcun`mk, igrsmb`t nmouhu, igrsgkmke bgcun`mk–. Vmym igrmsm

egci`rm bgrmkm nmpmt cgky`mpbmk tuemsmk `k` ngkemk lmymkym nmk igrmsm imkeem

bgrmkm nmpmt cgknmhmc` tap`b `k`.

Vgfmrm ucuckym, pgktmbs`rmk cgcigr`bmk cur`n, ìu impm nmk euru cmbhucmt

ymke tgrpgr`kf` tgktmke pgrbgcimkemk nmk pgkfmpm`mk cur`n nmhmc pgcighmlmrmk.

Cmbhucmt oms`h pgktmbs`rmk mbmk n`rulub uktub cgcpgrim`b` bghgcmomk cur̀ n nmk

cgk`kebmtbmk pgkfmpm`mkkym. Zgktmbs`rmk ymke nìumt mnmhmo cgke`but pgr̀ kebmt

bgiahgomk nmk stmknmrn pgrbgcimkemk cur`n tgrsgiut. Zgktmbs`rmk luem cgcgrhubmk

pgkeucpuhmk iubt` nmk nmtm pgkfmpm`mk cur̀ n nmhmc smtu tgcpao cmsm uktub

cgktmbs`r pgcighmlmrmk nmk pgcmomcmkkym. Iubt` nmk nmtm `k` nmpmt n`mci`h nmhmc

igktub n`mhae, lurkmh, hgcimrmk bgrlm, partdahà nmk igigrmpm lgk`s ul`mk sgpgrt` ul`mk

n`mekast`b. Vgemhm iubt` nmk nmtm tgrsgiut cgkeemcimrbmk tmomp bgiahgomk,bgburmkemk nmk bghgiòmk cur`n igrbgkmmk uktub pgkgcpmtmk.

Cgke`but pgcmomcmk smym, pgktmbs`rmk nmhmc Zgkn`n`bmk Boms mnmhmo uktub

cgcigr` cmbhucmt nmk emcimrmk tgktmke tmomp pgkeumsmmk cur`n nmhmc pghimem`

bgcmo`rmk sgpgrt` cgcimfm, cgkuh̀ s, cgke r̀m nmk sgimem`kym. @m luem nmpmt




cgkegsmk pukfm cmsmhmo ymke nòmnmp` cur`n nmk cgrmkebm `ktgrvgks`, strmtge`

pgkemlmrmk nmk pgkgcpmtmk ymke sgsum` cgke`but tmomp bgiahgomkkym. Zgktmbs`rmk

nmk pgcgromt`mk ymke n`lmhmkbmk bg mtms cur`n tghmo cgcigr` smym pgkegtmoumk nmk

emcimrmk tgktmke imem`cmkm cgk h̀m` bgupmymmk cur̀ n Zgkn`n`bmk Boms. Omh `k`

bgrmkm, bgcmcpumk nmk tmomp bgiahgomk sgt`mp cur̀ n Zgkn`n`bmk Boms mnmhmo

igrigzm cgke`but lgk`s cmsmhmokym. Ahgo ymke ngc`b`mk, euru cgcm`kbmk pgrmkmk

ymke pgkt`ke nmhmc cgrmkfmke nmk cgrmkebm `ktgrvgks` sgrtm strmtge` ymke pmh`ke

sgsum` uktub cgklmhmkbmk prasgs pgkemlmrmk nmk pgcighmlmrmk supmym cgrgbm

cgcpgrahgo` pgkn`n`bmk ymke sgpmtutkym.

YWLWBMK

Nr. Minuhhmo Pusad . (9::5). Zgkegkmhmk Zgkn`n`bmk Boms. Bumhm Hucpur.

Cgtgar Naf. Vnk Ion.

Caon. Vmhhgo Hgimr . =000. Cmsmhmo Zgkemlmrmk nmk Zgcighmlmrmk Bmkmb-

Bmkmb Igrbgpgrhumk Boms Nmhmc Zgkngkemrmk. Vgrnmke. Wk`vgrs`t` Zutgrm Cmhmys`m.

Vmhv`m Pssghnybg. (=0??). Mssgsscgkt `k Vpgf`mh mkn Ygcgn`mh Gnufmt̀ ak.

Mcgr`bm Vymr`bmt. Oaueotak C`ddh`k Facpmky.

V. Lmy Bungr . (9::5). ^gmfo`ke Vtungkts w`to Hmkeumeg Mkn Faccuk`fmtàk

N`smi`h`t`gs. Mcgr`bm Vymr`bmt. Yawmk Wk`vgrs`ty.

Vtgpogk K. Ghhàtt . (=0??). Mssgsscgkt ad Vpgf`mh Fo`hnrgk. Mcgr`bm Vymr`bmt.

Furr`fuhuc Mssaf`mtgs, @kf.




\mr̀ k @scm`h, Vmdmk` Imr̀ & Vaa Iaak Vgke .(9::>). @ktgerms` Vas`mh Cur`n

Igrbgpgrhumk Boms Igrcmsmhmo Zgkngkemrmk nmk Zraermc @kbhus`d. Bumhm Hucpur.

Ngwmk Imomsm nmk Zustmbm.

ZBW 6=:4 ZGK^MBV@YMK NMHMC ZGKN@N@BMK BOMV 9? | Z m e g

assignment pku 3106 - pentaksiran dalam pendidikan khas

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